Martin Luther's Reforms Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Martin Luther's Reforms - Essay Example However, during the time, the Protestant Reformation created confusion and a sense of chaos among European Christians. Immediate effects of the Protestant Reformation included a division among European Christians. â€Å"The protestant reformation also generated resistance and hostility, not least from the institutions of the traditional church and its defenders† (Greengrass, 1). Prior to the Reformation, European Christians lived in a more conformed society; religion was a very large aspect of their lives and with their religion they had an understanding of their place within their communities and their world. When Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of a church in 1517, he sparked not only a reaction from the Catholic Church but a reaction from monarchs and citizens across Europe. Some monarchies, such as in Germany, Holland, and England, eventually embraced the idea of reforming the Catholic Church and allowing for the progressive views of Protestantism to reorganize their churches and religious practices (McKay, Hill, and Buckler, 12). Other monarchies were not as accepting. Fra nce and Italy, for example, clung tightly to the history and roots of the Roman Catholic Church (McKay, Hill, and Buckler, 12). Reformists faced multiple hurdles as both the Roman Catholic Church and sympathizing monarchs worked to extinguish the Lutheran movement. Citizens were often accused of heresy or witchcraft, and they were sometimes burned or tortured for their refusal to once again accept the Papal authority of the Pope and the Catholic Church: In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a frenzy spread through Europe that witches in allegiance with the Devil were combining forces to destroy the Christian faith†¦The panic of the masses, from those of the elite to the humble peasantry working together, resulted in thousands of men and women undergoing

Hamlet Essay Example for Free

Hamlet Essay Act 1- Scene 1 The first entrance of the ghost is made impressive because Marcellus and Bernardo only told Horatio about them seeing the ghost in the two nights before during their watch. Horatio did not believe them â€Å"Horatio says ‘tis but our fantasy and will not let belief take hold of him touching this sight twice seen of us;† (1.1.23-25) What makes the siting of the ghost so important is that the two guard believe it to be the ghost of the dead King Hamlet. When the ghost appears and Horatio asks it to speak the ghost suddenly disappears. In its second exit the ghost returns and again they ask it to speak but as it spreads its arms the cockcrows and the ghost disappears yet again not saying anything. A superstition that is connected with the ghost is that the guards believe that it is the ghost of the dead King that is trying to warn them of some impending misfortune for Denmark. Act 1 – Scene 2 The new King Claudius attempts to justify his marriage to the Queen by giving a speech to his courtiers, explaining his recent marriage to Queen, his brother’s widow and the mother of Prince Hamlet. Claudius says that he mourns his brother but has chosen to balance Denmark’s mourning with the delight of his marriage. â€Å"With mirth in funeral, and dirge in marriage, in equal scale weighing delight and dole, taken to wife.† (1.2.12-14) In his soliloquy Hamlet expresses that he wishes he could die. He wishes that God had not made suicide a sin. He is also thinking about how it is possible for his mother to have move on after two short month that his father has been gone. When the line â€Å"Frailty, thy name is woman† (1.3.146) is spoken he is referring of his mother because just two months ago his father and her husband died and now she has just moved on to his fathers brother because she is weak and will not make it on her own or w ithout a husband and he finds that shaming. Act 1- Scene 3 1.Laertes believes that Hamlets relationship with Ophelia is not true, because someone of his ranking can not love someone like Ophelia because he is too far above her to love her honourably. Since Hamlet is not only responsible for his feelings but also the role that he will one day play as King Laertes believe that it will be impossible for Hamlet to ever marry Ophelia. Before he leaves he tell her to make sure she does not fall in love with him. â€Å"Fear it, Ophelia, fear it, my dear sister, and keep you in the rear of your affections, out of the shot and danger of desire† (1.3.33-35) 2.Polonius has the same opinion of Laertes, and forbids Ophelia to associate with Hamlet anymore. He tells her that Hamlet has deceived her in swearing his love, and that she should see through his false vows â€Å"Affection pooh! You speak like a green girl, unsifted in such perilous circumstances. Do you believe his tenders, as you call them?† (1.3.101-03) Act 1- Scene 4 †¢Horatio, Marcellus, and Hamlet are keeping watch outside the class, while Hamlet tells the two men that the King has been spending his night drinking alcohol and how he believe that he is tarnishing the Danish people. †¢The ghost appears and calls out to Hamlet to follow him. †¢Even though Horatio and Marcellus tell him not to go and consider that the ghost could harm him Hamlet decides to follow the ghost anyways †¢Hamlet does not care if his life is in danger and follow the ghost off into the darkness †¢Horatio believes that Hamlet is now in the hands of God but Marcellus thinks that they should follow Hamlet and try to protect him, so the two set off after Hamlet and the ghost Act 1- Scene 5 In this scene King Hamlet reveals to his son that his death was cause by foul play and it was a murder. â€Å"Murder most foul, as in the best it is, but this most foul, strange and unnatural.† (1.5.27-28) The King then tells Hamlet that is was his very own brother that killed him. Now Hamlet, hear. Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard, a serpent stung me. So the whole ear of Denmark is by a forged process of my death rankly abused. But know, thou noble youth, the serpent that did sting thy father’s life now wears his crown. (1.5.34-39 The ghost of the King tells Hamlet to â€Å"leave her to heaven† (1.5.86) which means he does not want Hamlet to do anything to his mother because the King realizes that she has been tainted by Claudius.

1,2,4-Oxadiazole Moiety Molecules Synthesis for Cancer

1,2,4-Oxadiazole Moiety Molecules Synthesis for Cancer 2.4. Synthesis of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole derivatives for their MTT assay using MCF-7 breast cancer cell line and degradation of DNA in EAT cells 2.4.1. INTRODUCTION In the biological and pharmacological importance, heterocycles plays a significance role. Oxadiazole molecules show biologically activity includes angiogenesis inhibitor [246] and also HIV inhibitor [247], tyrosine kinase inhibition [45], histamine H3 antagonism [48], muscarinic agonism [49], potent histamine H2 receptor antagonists [50, 51], muscarinic receptor antagonists [53, 54], interleukin-8 (IL-8) receptor antagonists [65], cytotoxic activities [68], monoamine oxidase inhibition [66], potent therapeutic agents for prostate cancer [72], anticonvulsant activity [67], tumor-selective and apoptosis-inducing agents [70, 71], antitumor [4f] and apoptosis-inducing anticancer agents [73, 74]. Breast cancer is a most terrifying disease in which cells in breast tissue grow and divide without normal control. This type of growth of cells without control forms a lump called tumor. In breast cancer, tumors are called benign or malignant. Malignant tumors will grow by eating food. They get the food by forming new blood vessels in a process called angiogenesis. These blood vessels are the main reason to promote the growth of the tumors. After this tumor growing it will spread to nearby tissue, which is called as invasion. The breakage of main tumor cells will spread into other parts of the body and it will lead to metastatic breast cancer. This happens through blood stream or lymphatic system and this process is called metastasis. The main disadvantage of the malignant breast cancer is dividing and grows out of control which leads to form number of new tumors. If those new tumors are in other parts of the body, then also we call those as breast cancer. Especially in women, breast cancer leading to the cause of cancer related death. In developing and developed countries, breast cancer is the second most common malignancy type diagnosed disease in women. In India breast cancer is the most discussing problem in the current health problem (248). By the survey conceded by the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR), the percentage of breast cancer patients has been nearly doubled. In the past few years nearly one lakh new patients are being detected from 1985 to 2001 (249, 250). It has been estimated that the breast cancer in 2004 is nearly 90,273 and they predicted that in 2015 the patient’s number may be nearly 1, 12,680 (251). Due to the damage in DNA, normal cells will become cancer cells. DNA is present in every cell and it directs to all its actions. When DNA gets damaged in normal cells, the cell either repairs the damage or it dies. But in the cancer cells, damaged DNA is not repaired. The damaged cell undergoes splitting. As a result cell goes on making new cells that the body doesn’t need and those cells have same damaged DNA as the first cells does. This conjecture the design and synthesis of new anticancer drugs, and drug combination and treatment modalities is still the need for effective treatment of breast cancer patients [252]. 1,2,4-Oxadiazole moiety molecules show signs of vide variety of biological activities [40, 253-255]. In connection to the above studies, our molecules are subjected to the angiogenesis using MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines and degradation of DNA studies using in EAT cells. 2.4.2. MATERIALS Melting points were recorded (uncorrected) on a Buchi Melting Point B-545 instrument. Infrared (IR) spectra were recorded using a Jasco FTIR-4100 series. All reagents and solvents used were commercially procured and used as received. 1H-NMR spectra’s were recorded on Shimadzu AMX-400-Bruker with 400 MHz with TMS as internal standard. The 13C NMR spectra were examined on a Bruker DPX-400 at 100.6 MHz. The mass spectra were recorded on a JEOL JMS-AX505HA mass spectrometer. 2.4.3. EXPERIMENTAL 2.4.3.1. Chemistry General procedure for synthesis of (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2). A solution of hydroxylamine hydrochloride (1.529 g, 22.004 mmol) (2.5eq) and sodium carbonate (1.492 g, 14.082 mmol) (1.6eq) was taken in a round bottom flask. Stir for 10min to dissolve completely, then to this mixture 4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorobenzonitrile (1) (2.0 g, 8.801 mmol) (1.0 eq) is dissolved with ethanol was added. Then the mixture is heated to 60 0C about 5-6 hr. After that the steps forward of the reaction fusion was examined by the thin layer chromatography (TLC). After reaction completion, the solvent and the product was separated in vacuum pump under reduced pressure. Then the product was poured to water and extracted with ethyl ethanoate. The organic layer was washed 2-3 times with distilled water. The organic layer was washed 2-3 times with distilled water. The extracted ethyl ethanoate layer was dried over sodium sulphate (anhydrous) and the solvent was evaporated to get (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hyd roxybenzimidamide (2). 2.4.3.2. Synthesis of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole 4(a-f) derivatives. (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2) (1.0 eq) is dissolved in dry dichloromethane and cooled to 0-5 0C in ice bath. Then N,N-diisopropylethylamine (1.1 eq) was added to cold reaction mixture and stirred for 10 minutes, then different aromatic acid chlorides (3a-e) (1 eq) were added. The reaction mixture was allowed to room temperature under stirring for 5-6 hr. After that the steps forward of the reaction fusion was examined by the thin layer chromatography (TLC). After reaction completion, the solvent and the product was separated in vacuum pump under reduced pressure. Then the product was poured to water and extracted with ethyl ethanoate. The organic layer was washed 2-3 times with distilled water. The organic layer was washed 2-3 times with distilled water. The extracted ethyl ethanoate layer was dried over sodium sulphate (anhydrous) and the product was purified with the help of column chromatography over silica gel (60-120 mesh) using hexane and ethyl acetate (1:1). Scheme 1. Reagents and conditions: (i) Sodium carbonate, water, ethanol, 60 0C, 6 h; (ii) dichloromethane, N,N-diisopropylethylamine, 0-5 0C, 6 h; 3(a-e) Where 3a = 4-chloro benzoyl chloride; 3b = 4-Fluoro benzoyl chloride; 3c = 4-(trifluoromethyl)benzoyl chloride; 3d = 4-Fluoro-3-Nitrobenzoyl chloride; 3e = 4-EthylPhenylbenzoyl chloride. 2.4.3.2.1. Synthesis of 5-(4-chlorophenyl)-3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole (4a) Pale yellow color from (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2) (0.1 g, 0.384 mmol), 4-chlorobenzoylchloride (3a) (0.067 g, 0.384 mmol) and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (0.049 g, 0.461 mmol). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): 8.32 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.75 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 7.70, (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.55 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.50 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 7.35 (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.30 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 5.05 (d, 1H, pyrrole-H), 2.56-2.30 (d, 4H, pyrrole-H); MS (ESI) m/z: 381.081 (100.0%), Anal. calcd. for C20H14ClFN4O (in %): C- 63.08, H- 3.71, N- 14.71. 2.4.3.2.2. Synthesis of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-fluorophenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole (4b) Orange color from (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2) (0.1 g, 0.384 mmol), 4-Fluoro benzoyl chloride (3b) (0.060 g, 0.384 mmol)and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (0.049 g, 0.461 mmol). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): 8.31 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.30 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 7.72, (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.56 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.34 (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.31 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.29 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 5.02 (d, 1H, pyrrole-H), 2.58-2.31 (d, 4H, pyrrole-H); MS (ESI) m/z: 365.114 (100.0%), Anal. calcd. for C20H14F2N4O (in %): C- 65.93, H- 3.87, N- 15.38. 2.4.3.2.3. Synthesis of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole (4c) Dark brown color from (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2) (0.1 g, 0.384 mmol), 4-(trifluoromethyl)benzoyl chloride (3c) (0.080 g, 0.384 mmol) and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (0.049 g, 0.461 mmol). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): 8.33 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 8.10 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 7.74 (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.70 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 7.58 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.37 (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.33 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 5.06 (d, 1H, pyrrole-H), 2.59-2.29 (d, 4H, pyrrole-H); MS (ESI) m/z: 415.110 (100.0%), Anal. calcd. for C21H14F4N4O (in %): C- 60.87, H- 3.41, N- 13.52. 2.4.3.2.4. Synthesis of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-(4-fluoro-3-nitrophenyl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole (4d) Pale yellow color from (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2) (0.1 g, 0.384 mmol), 4-Fluoro-3-Nitrobenzoyl chloride (3d) (0.078 g, 0.384 mmol)and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (0.049 g, 0.461 mmol). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): 8.71 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 8.65 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 8.34 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.74 (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.61 (dd, 1H, Ar-H), 7.58 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.37 (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.33 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 5.06 (d, 1H, pyrrole-H), 2.59-2.29 (d, 4H, pyrrole-H); MS (ESI) m/z: 410.099 (100.0%), Anal. calcd. for C20H13F2N5O3 (in %): C- 58.68, H- 3.20, N- 13.52. 2.4.3.2.5. Synthesis of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-(5-ethyl-[1,1-biphenyl]-2-yl)-1,2,4-oxadiazole (4e). White color from (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2) (0.1 g, 0.384 mmol), 4-EthylPhenylbenzoyl chloride (3e) (0.094 g, 0.384 mmol) and N,N-diisopropylethylamine (0.049 g, 0.461 mmol). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): 8.31 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.95 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.80 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 7.75 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.72, (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.53 (dd, 2H, Ar-H), 7.56 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.45 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.34 (d, 1H, imid-H), 7.30 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 7.31 (d, 1H, Ar-H), 5.03 (d, 1H, pyrrole-H), 2.65 (q, 2H, -CH2), 2.58-2.31 (d, 4H, pyrrole-H), 1.27 (t, 3H, -CH3),; MS (ESI) m/z: 451.186 (100.0%), Anal. calcd. for C28H23FN4O (in %): C- 74.65, H- 5.15, N- 12.44. 2.4.4. Biology 2.4.4.1. Culture of MCF-7 cells: MCF-7 cells were cultured with minor modification in Minimal Essential medium (Invitrogen) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100units/ml penicillin-G, 100  µg/ml streptomycin and 1% sodium bicarbonate (Invitrogen). MCF-7 cells were obtained from Cell repository unit of National Center for Cell Sciences (NCCS), Pune, India. All cell lines were maintained at 37 °C in a humidified atmosphere with 5% CO2 [256]. 2.4.4.2. Culture of EAT cells: Animals, in vivo tumor generation and imidazole derivatives treatment Six to eight weeks old female mice were acclimated for one week while caged in-group of five. Mice were housed and fed a diet of animal chow and water ad libitum throughout the experiment. All the experiments were approved by the institutional animal care and use committee of the University of Mysore, Mysore, India. Ehrlich Ascites Tumor (EAT) cells (5Ãâ€"106 cells/mouse) were injected intraperitoneally. These cells grow in mouse peritoneum forming an ascites tumor with massive abdominal swelling. The animals showed a dramatic increase in body weight over the growth period and the animals succumbed to the tumor burden 14–16 days after implantation. 2.4.4.2.1. Isolation of EAT cells from mice peritoneal cavity and compound treatment: From the peritoneal cavity of tumor-bearing mice the EAT cells were isolated (control and treated). 2-3 mm of sterile PBS was injected in to the peritoneal cavity of the mice and the peritoneal fluid containing tumor cells withdrawn, collect in sterile petri dishes and incubated at 370C for 2 h. The cells of macrophage linage adhered to the bottom of Petri dishes. The non-adherent population was aspirated out gently and washed repeatedly with PBS. Moreover, viability of these cells was assessed and was found to be >95% by trypan blue dye exclusion. The viable EAT cells were processed for further experiments. The EAT cells (5 x 106) were treated with or without compounds of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole series 4(a-e) and incubated at 370 C for different time interval or for known period of time. After the incubation period the cells w ere used for the further analysis [258]. 2.4.4.2.2. Cell count by Trypan blue dye exclusion assay. EAT cells were treated with different concentrations of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole compounds 4(a-e) at various time periods (0–4 h). Cell viability was assessed by mixing aliquots of cell suspension with 0.4% trypan blue and counted using heamocytometer. Cells that picked up the dye were considered to be dead [259(a)]. 2.4.5. Result and Discussion 2.4.5.1. Chemistry Synthesis of the key intermediate (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2) is outlined in Scheme 1. Briefly, hydroxylamine hydrochloride and sodium carbonate was taken in water and stirred. 4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorobenzonitrile (1) was dissolved in ethanol and added to the reaction mixture. The presence of –NH2 and =N-OH proton peaks NMR spectra indicates the formation of (Z)-4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluoro-N-hydroxybenzimidamide (2). The key intermediate compound (2) was taken in dry dichloromethane and cooled to 0-5 0C, and N,N-diisopropylethylamine was added. Stirred for 10 min, then different aromatic acid chlorides 3(a-e) was added drop by drop. The reaction mixture was allowed to room temperature under stirring for 5-6 h and after that the steps forward of the reaction fusion was examined by the thin layer chromatography (TLC). After reaction completion, the solvent and th e product was separated in vacuum pump under reduced pressure. Then the product was poured to water and extracted with ethyl ethanoate. The organic layer was washed 2-3 times with distilled water to get target 3-(4-(3-(1H-imidazol-5-yl)propyl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole 4(a-e). Upon completion crude products 4(a-e) were obtained with a good yield of 81–93% and which the product was purified with the help of column chromatography over silica gel (60-120 mesh) using hexane and ethyl acetate (1:1). The absence of –CO proton peak in synthesized derivatives in 1H spectra confirmed the identity of the products. The details of chemical structures, physical data and purity of compounds are given in Table 1. Compound R1 Yield MP (oC) Purity 4a 90 277 90 4b 85 100 93 4c 81 110 89 4d 82 142 92 4e 79 95 81 Table 1. Chemical structures, physical data and purity of compounds 4(a–e) 2.4.5.2. Biology 2.4.5.2.1. MTT assay: The MTT assay was performed according to the protocol previously reported [257]. MCF-7 cells were plated at a density of 1 X 105 cells in 96-well plates. (Subsequently, the 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole series 4(a-e) were assayed using concentrations from 0.05 to 0.5 mM). After 24 h of incubation, 10  µL of 5% 3-(4,5- dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) (Sigma Aldrich) (0.05 mg/mL) were added to the culture medium. After 4 h at 370C the culture medium was removed and 200  µL of DMSO were added to dissolve the salts of formazan. The absorbance was measured with a 96-wells plate spectrophotometer at 570 nm. The experiments were independently performed three times and each experiment contained triple replicates. Control samples containing a complete culture medium devoid of cells or control cells with 0.1% DMSO were also included in each experiment. Figure 1. The MTT assay of compounds 4(a-e) in MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines. Sl.No. Name of the compound IC50 Value 1 Cisplatin 10ÃŽ ¼g 2 4a 100ug 3 4b 200ug 4 4c 100ug 5 4d 800ug 6 4e 200ug Table 2. Compounds 4(a-e) and their IC50 value ( µg/ml) on MCF-7 breast cancer cell lines. 2.4.5.3. DNA fragmentation assay: EAT cells were collected from mice treated with or without 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazole series 4(a-e). Thein vivo and DNA was isolated using the phenol–chloroform method. In brief, cells were lysed in a buffer containing 50mM Tris–HCl, pH 8.0, and 0.5% SDS, and incubated for 30min at 37 °C. The cell lysate was subjected to 8M potassium acetate precipitation and left for 1h at 4 °C. The supernatant was subjected to phenol/chloroform/isoamyl alcohol (25:24:1) extraction and once to chloroform extraction. DNA was precipitated by adding 1:2 volumes of ice-cold ethanol. The precipitated DNA was dissolved in 50ÃŽ ¼L TE buffer (pH 8.0). The DNA was digested with 20ÃŽ ¼g/mL RNase at 37 °C for 1h. The DNA was quantitated and equal concentration of DNA (25ÃŽ ¼g) was resolved on 1.5% agarose gel, viewed under UV light, and documented using BIORAD gel documentation system Figure 2 [259(b)]. Figure 2. The DNA degradation of compounds 4(a-e) in Ehrlich Ascites Tumor (EAT) cells. Conclusion: A series of 3-(4-(6,7-dihydro-5H-pyrrolo[1,2-c]imidazol-5-yl)-3-fluorophenyl)-5-substituted-1,2,4-oxadiazoles 4(a-e) has been synthesized by using simple synthetic procedures and were screened for their MTT assay using MCF-7 breast cancer cell line and degradation of DNA in Ehrlich Ascites Tumor (EAT) cells activity. All the final compounds exhibited good in all the in-vitro activity.

Supporting the US Patriot Act Essay -- Privacy

The US Patriot Act should stay in effect indefinitely because it helps to remove barriers to investigate terrorism, it strengthens the criminal laws against terrorism, and it gives the government the authority to intercept wire, oral and electronic communications relating to terrorism. "Originally passed after the September 11, 2001 attacks, the Patriot Act was formed in response to the terrorist attacks against the United States. This law dramatically expanded the authority of American law enforcement for the stated purpose of fighting terrorism in the United States. It is used to enhance domestic security against terrorism, and enhance surveillance procedures. It gives the government the authority to intercept wire, oral, and electronic communications relating to terrorism. It has also been used to detect and prosecute other alleged potential crimes, such as providing false information on terrorism. It was renewed on March 2, 2006 with a vote of 89 to 11 in the Senate and on M arch 7 280 to 138 in the House. The renewal was signed into law by President Bush on March 9, 2006."1 (USA Patriot Act" www.wikipedia.org on 02/08/2007). The Patriot Act has been very important to winning the War on Terror and protecting the American people. The signed legislation allows intelligence and law enforcement officials to continue sharing information and using the same tools against terrorists already employed against drug dealers and other criminals. This legislation helps to strengthen the U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ) so that it can better identify and interrupt terrorist threats. It also provides law enforcement officials new tools to combat threats, while safeguarding Americans' civil liberties. America still faces dangerous en... ... remember about government powers is not to necessarily only worry about what they do but what they allow the government to do (because eventually they likely will). These provisions in and of themselves are not a ridiculous assault on liberty but they do increase powers and reduce rights incrementally. And it is likely that any overall reduction of rights will be incremental and always driven by government 'necessity' to protect or provide. The Patriot Act is one of these measures that will allow each American life, liberty, and the pursuit happiness. Although, some laws might seem intrusive in nature; that intrusiveness provides Americans with a feeling of safety. Sources: 1. "USA Patriot Act" www.wikipedia.org. accessed on 02/08/2007 2. "USA Patriot Act" www.whitehouse.gov accessed on 02/07/2007

Everyman-a Medieval Play Review

Everyman is a play which was written to express the importance of morality, to whoever read it or experienced it being performed on stage. Some scholars say that it was written sometime in the late 1400’s, while others insist that it is a translation of a Flemish work called â€Å"Elckerlijc†, which was written by Peter van Diest in 1495. Everyman is an allegory play which is heavily based upon Christian religious perspectives; also it is resoundingly similar to the Christian belief of the resurrection of Christ, and his ascension into Heaven, after the crucifixion.The first act of Everyman, opens with a prologue which takes on the form of a messenger, telling the audience about the fate which is to come to Everyman. The messenger goes on to tell the audience that eventually God will call upon all of humanity to stand before him, and give account of their works which they had wrought in life. The next part of the play is God calling upon Death, to go and bring Everyman to stand before him. God commands Death to go and bring Everyman before him, so that he may give account of his own misdeeds that he has wrought in life. So Death goes and finds Everyman, and tells him that his time has come.Everyman then attempts to bribe Death with a thousand pounds, but Death refuses. However, he states that he will allow Everyman to bring someone with him, so that he does not have to face his judgment alone. Everyman first goes to Fellowship, whom represents friends and companions; and asks him to accompany him to go and stand before the judgment God. Fellowship, whom had promised to stand besides Everyman through whatever may come; tells Everyman that he will not go with him to the grave, because he fears Death and the judgment of God. Everyman is heartbroken, but then goes on to the next in line.Everyman then goes to Kindred and Cousin, which are supposed to represent family and kin; but they too tell him that they will not accompany him on his way to the grav e. Thirdly, Everyman turns to Goods, which represents material possessions; nonetheless she also states that she will not go with Everyman to his final judgment. Everyman is very concerned by this point, and so he turns to Good Deeds for companionship. Good Deeds states that she will go with Everyman to face his judgment with him; but unfortunately she lacks the strength for such a journey, because Everyman as neglected her throughout his life. Good Deeds tells Everyman that he must then go before her sister, Knowledge; for she will know the way in which Good Deeds may regain strength. Upon meeting Knowledge, she tells Everyman that he must go before Confession; and there Everyman confesses his sins. Afterward, Confession gives Everyman a â€Å"jewel† called Penance; which cleanses Everyman of his sins, so that he may stand before God and not be in jeopardy of damnation. With his confession behind him, Good Deeds regains his strength, and is ready to accompany Everyman to the grave.Knowledge then tells Everyman to gather together his attributes of life: Beauty, Strength, Discretion, and Five Wits; so that they too may accompany him to his reckoning with God. But when Everyman gathers them together, they tell him that they will not go with him to the grave; essentially because they are all characteristics of youth, which are all now fleeting from him, as he has the end of life. With that, Knowledge, and Good Deeds accompany Everyman to his final reckoning with God.There enters the character Angel; Knowledge then attests to Angel that Everyman was a good and just person, and in the end, he confessed his sins before God. Then Everyman and Good Deeds go down into the grave, and thus make their way to stand before God in the final judgment of Everyman. Fundamentally, this play ends with the character, Doctor, stating that all accept Good Deeds and Knowledge will all flee from a person, when they go before God for their final judgment. *** Issues in Raised in Key Resources There are several key issues which were raised by the scholars that wrote the major resources which I used to write this report.This play has received a moderate amount of popularity over the past near 500 years; and now today there are some scholars and researchers whom are exceptionally critical, both positively and negatively, of the details as to how it was written. One criticism of note would have to be one which was voiced by Thomas F van Laan. In referring to the general premise of Everyman, he contends of the writer that â€Å"His speech is essentially negative; he focuses solely on the inevitability of death and the destructiveness of sin†.Simply put, Mr. van Laan is stating that at first, the sole purpose of this work appears to emphasize specifically on death and how mankind should feel only sorrow for anything that they do, which goes against the teachings of Christianity. Another criticism of this work which Mr. van Laan refers to is the point in t he beginning when God first speaks. Mr. Van Laan states: â€Å"Gods words are wholly negative in force, implying only the difficulty to come, omitting any indication of hope for mankind†. Mr. an Laan is voicing this criticism on the opening section of the play, fundamentally about how he considers Gods words to be too negative in their approach. In expressing this condemnation, Mr. van Laan is adamant about his beliefs that God would probably not be so disconcerting in his approach to dealing with mankind. However not all that Mr. van Laan has to say about Everyman is negative in nature. He goes on to shed light on the allegory nature of the play, and how this lends credence to its being a unique, legitimate work of theater. He contends that â€Å"The first movement, is a falling action, which traces Everyman’s’ decline in fortune.This shatters the apparent serenity of his life, to the depth of his despair†¦fallowed by the second movement, a rising action, which carries him from this nadir unto his final salvation†¦which is symbolized by the words of the welcoming Angel†. It is my belief, that essentially what Mr. van Laan is stating, is that by using actual characters to personify the specific aspects of human nature; the persona of the play becomes a two-fold endeavor. Firstly, by the characters being literal representations of human qualities; they achieve a form of realism, which is normally only conveyed through the use of spoken dialog.Secondly, the movement’s themselves-transpiring from a state of utter despair, to a state of harmonious bliss; is not only characteristic of all great works of drama, but also of life itself. Throughout Mr. van Laan’s review of Everyman, he states his opinion that by the author using characters to represent the individual aspects of human identity; the play conveys a form of realism, which is distinctly unique. Next brings us to the arguments made by the researcher Roger A. Ladd. His belief is that this play was not written for the everyday person, but was in fact written to be a work which would have been performed for the â€Å"bourgeoisie†.His reasoning stems from research which had been done by scholar Dorothy Wertz; the same scholar who also believes that Everyman was probably written strictly to be performed for the elite rich. In her research, Mrs. Wertz points to the fact that â€Å"by simply examining the vocabulary and phrases used in the original piece, one can determine whom the play had been written for†. In that, she states that â€Å"the wording itself would have been too formal for ordinary citizens of the time period to ascertain†. However, unlike Mrs.Wertz, who believes that Everyman is specifically nothing more than a direct translation of Elckerlijc; Mr. Ladd assumes that it is an amalgamation of Elckerlijc and other English literary customs of the era. Mr. Ladd’s purported theory was reached in part, by investigating the traits of the character â€Å"Goods†, and comparing them with the English anti-mercantile satire traditions which were popular in the late-medieval period. An example of which being, that in the Germanic-Dutch based Elckerlijc, Goods is described as appearing as â€Å"Neglected, rusty . . heaped up, filthy†. However in Everyman as Mr. Ladd purports, Goods appears in a more English anti-mercantile manner as being â€Å"trussed and piled so high, and in chest I am locked so fast, also sacked in bags†. The Everyman description, falls in line with the late-medieval literary tradition of anti-mercantilism; which according to Mr. Ladd, comes as proof that Everyman could not have been strictly just an English translation of Elckerlijc. Another scholar whom is acquiescent in his research of Everyman is Lawrence V. Ryan. Mr.Ryan takes an approach, which seems to be more about discerning the religious implications of the play Everyman. The first point that Mr. Ryan makes is that †Without theology, the artistic merit may not be fully appreciated†¦that the theology involved is indispensable, not indefensible, and furthermore, that it gives the play its characters, structure, significance, and even its dramatic impressiveness†. One of the main points which all three scholars agree upon is that by being deserted by all those whom Everyman turns to for help; the audience develops a strong sense of pathos, for the plight of Everyman. Mr.Ryan suggests that the emergence of these false-friend characters â€Å"all appear in a climactic order, according to the increased danger of each as a distraction from one’s Maker†. Finally, Mr. Ryan gives his opinion about the reason why all the characters that abandon Everyman, as well as Everyman himself, are all men; and why the only characters that accompany him are women. In essence, the logic behind this as Mr. Ryan contends is that â€Å"All men are born into a state of sin†¦and that for dramatic suspense; the author chose to have the only redeeming characters be women†¦to show that women can counteract this dogma†.Personal Reaction to â€Å"Everyman† My personal opinion of this particular play is one of high appreciation. Unlike some of the reviews of scholars which I have read, which did not display too much positive reception for this work; I personally enjoyed reading it, and doing my report on this play. When I first tried to read the Old-English original version of this play, I found it incredibly hard to ascertain what exactly the meaning was behind what the author had written. Understandably it was difficult for me when trying to use the un-translated Everyman, as Old-English is a version of our language, which has been out-of-date for centuries.When I found the translated version of Everyman on the Fordham University website and began reading it, I almost instantly thought that it had been a work which had b een written by either someone whom was a priest, or had been another member of the Christian church in some capacity. Another notion which I had was that if the play had not been written by someone who was a church member, then it obviously had to have been written by someone whom had some form of agenda for getting people involved with the Christian church in some form or another.Perhaps the author had a legitimate reason for wanting people to become more involved with the church or to become closer to god in some fashion. On the other hand, perhaps there was a more sinister motive; like getting more people into the flock of the church, in order to acquire more money flowing into their coffers. Personally, I think that it was a combination of both motives, and that whoever had wrote this play, also had a genuine interest in using a popular mode of expression.Or perhaps the author wanted to show that by turning away from the sins of the flesh; that a person could attain a state of c onsciousness, which could bring them closer to a higher form of enlightenment. No matter what the personal objectives were for its creation, one thing remains clear; this was that the author of this particular piece was incredibly ahead of his time. From what I have examined in doing research for this report project; in reading other plays that date from the late medieval age, I can honestly say with a certainty, that I have not read anything that dates from this period, which is as unique as this.The usage of human emotions and possessions being personified into literal characters is uniquely a modern notion; and from what I have found, does not appear to have been done in a theatrical piece until sometime around 18th or 19th century. This plot construction is something which I have seen in movies and television shows; which are much more recent, than something that dates from the late medieval period. One example that immediately comes to mind is Charles Dickens’ Christmas Carol; although not entirely the same in primary foundation, the underlying principle is similar.Some of the scholars that I read about, that reviewed this work; were quick to dismiss it as being either frivolity, or simply nothing more than an act of religious propaganda. I have to disagree with both sides; I feel that this is a excellent illustration of late medieval/early modern era theatrical work, which will more than likely see its relevance come again. Summary of  key scholarship on this play The first article which I used to review for this report on the play Everyman was a modern-English translation, of the late medieval original version of the play.This particular article didn’t offer any insight into it, as in scholar reviews; but it was extremely helpful in writing my summary of the play. Without this article, I am not sure if I would have been able to do this research project on this particular play, as I would not have been able to even ascertain what it was a bout. The next article which I used to write this report was written by Roger Ladd. Mr. Ladd took a definitively scholarly approach to conducting his research.Some of the main issues which he decided to confront were how the play Everyman deals with the religious implications of how material wealth corrupts the good intentions of mankind. Ladd went into detail, comparing the details of Everyman, to other plays of similar genera that date from the period. He explains about how most everyday citizens of the late medieval period, looked at the assemblage of material wealth, as the path to avarice, which puts their immortal souls in jeopardy.Like many other scholars whom have written journals about the â€Å"morality plays†, Ladd believes that in order to find out whom the plays written for, one has to look into the wording of the work; by doing this, he states that it becomes apparent who the target was. For example Everyman, when the main character is forced to give up his worl dly possessions; it is written to appear as if this could have been the most dastardly thing which could have occurred in his life. Other key scholarship reviews of this play, comes from the scholarly works of Lawrence V. Ryan.Ryan takes an approach to his research, which is concerned with how organized religion is suspect in this play. One of his main thesis’ is about how in the play, Everyman attains salvation through his own works, and not by the salvation which comes from God. He talks about how many religious figures were quick to label Everyman as a work of unholy declarations; and that how many of these religious leaders informed members of their churches that they would be in danger of hell by going to watch a performance of Everyman. Ryan is perhaps the most non-forgiving of the three scholars that I chose to use.Mostly, he tries to make it known that he is of the opinion that Everyman was only an English translation of the Dutch work Elckerlijc. He does not make use of very much authentic information to make this claim, he simply relies on paraphrasing works which had been written by other scholars. Next, I used the research from the scholar Thomas F. vanLaan. VanLaan goes into detail describing the individual characters of Everyman. Noteworthy, is how he explains the nature of these characters, and how they relate to the human experience. Differing from the other scholars whom I referenced in this report, Mr. anLaan gives a very logical accounting of why the author chose to incorporate inanimate human natures, as the title characters for this play. The choices for the human failings and material wealth, was carefully used to make the play appeal to nearly everyone whom would have watched its production. An example being, of how Everyman had acquired material goods in his life, which would have appealed to the rich; while on the other hand, Everyman losing his material possessions would have gained the approval of the poor which might have bee n in the audience.However, I never found one scholarly review, which did not offer at least one compliment about this great play.Endnotes *** Paul Halsall, Internet Medieval Sourcebook, â€Å"Medieval Handbook: Everyman, 15th Century†, Fordham University (August 1998) (Accessed on October 20th, 2010) http://www. fordham. edu/halsall/basis/everyman. html —The entire summary which I wrote was based upon the modern-English translation of Everyman, which was available online at the Fordham University site.

The invasion of a new world: Aztecs and Avatars

Could the very large and powerful blue creatures of Pandora have similarities with the ancient civilization of the Aztecs? Yes, they have many similarities, not in terms of culture or lifestyle like one might think. Rather, both these civilizations share one identical aspect of their history, they were both invaded by an unknown, foreign mass of people. These two invasions have many similarities between each other but the three most prominent are, a completely unknown group of people coming to their land, invasion resulting in violence and desire for a specific object.In February 1519 the Spaniards embarked on a conquest led by Hernan Cortez. Cortez brought many warriors to this new world they were about explore. When the Spaniards reached the new world they were absolutely astonished, they had never seen anything remotely like it, they didn’t know such things existed! As the Spanish conquistadors journeyed inland, they reached the enormous capital city of Tenochtitlan. The no rmal custom of the Aztecs is to capture all foreign invaders and sacrifice them but the Aztecs showed mercy to the Spaniards and treated them as guests. With the arrival of Cortez, the Spaniards were overwhelmed at the new world they had found and the potential it could have for gold.On the other hand the Aztecs were overjoyed because they thought the new conquistadors were gods they had been awaiting. Similar to the Spaniards arriving in present day Mexico, the humans that invaded Pandora acted in a similar way. Aside from the scientists who studied the avatars, the humans on Pandora knew very little about how they acted or what their culture was. In general, the Aztecs and the Avatars reacted the same way to to the foreign invaders, astonished and curious.Although the Aztecs and Spaniards were getting along peacefully, that peace was about to come to a stop. Over time the Aztecs realized the the conquistadors were not gods. The Spanish now feared they could not get out of the city , alive at least. The Aztecs eventually let the Spanish leave with no harm but the conquistadors wanted the gold they came for. After freeing the Spanish, Cortez led an attack on the Aztecs. Many battles were fought between the Spaniards and Aztecs totalling hundreds and thousands of deaths.Like the battles the spaniards and Aztecs endured, the Avatars also fought with great numbers against the humans. After the humans destroyed the mother tree, which all the Navi lived in and worshiped, the Avatars decided to fight for their land. The Navi gathered as many tribes that were willing to fight and took on the humans full force. Just as the Aztecs had â€Å"home field advantage†, the Avatars also had the advantage of knowing the terrain better than the enemy. Another similarity was the fact that the humans and spaniards had a massive edge with their use of guns. If not for the weapon technology the Aztecs most likely would have beaten the Spaniards.The last similarity is that bot h invaders desired a mineral. In the Spaniards case it was gold, for the humans it was unobtanium. When the Spaniards first set sail to the new and unexplored world they had one thing on the mind, gold. They would do anything that was necessary to bring home wealth to Spain. The same mindset applied to the humans, the primary reason for being on Pandora was to mine up as much unobtanium they could find. With all the greed that filled the minds of the invaders, they had no respect for the native people’s land. The primary cause of the violence on both occasions was the lack of consideration for the native’s homes.This essay described the similarities between the invasions of the Avatar and Aztec’s homeland. When one mass of people invades land belonging to someone else, there tends to always be tension and violence, this was evidenced in both these occasions. Espero que hayas disfrutado el ensayo!

The Old Guitarist essays

The Old Guitarist essays To most people, a piece of artwork is just paint, colors, lines, and pictures that fill a blank canvas. Sometimes the whole story of the painting is evident, easily understandable through the dramatic poses of its subjects or the flamboyant backgrounds. But some paintings are not as loud as other paintings. It doesnt scream out and grabs peoples attention. The painting The Old Guitarist by Pablo Picasso is an example of a silent painting with a theme that can be interpreted into different ways, depending on the views of the person. When you first see the painting of The Old Guitarist, the dramatic blues will overcome your senses with a feeling of despair. People mostly associate blue with sadness, hence the phrase Why you feel so blue? The elongated fingers and the pitiful expression on the mans face will spark a sense of sadness. He plucks the strings of his guitars, as if playing a last song of hope. You immediately think of him as a poor beggar, with the tattered clothes on his back. Picasso extends our sympathy for this guy by not putting shoes on his feet. We wonder if hes cold in the streets. Then he is slouched down, as if he is tired from a hard day of looking for food or work. But he still has his guitar, the only thing not painted in a shade of blue. It stands out as if it is a symbol of who he is. If a person saw this painting, he can associate that the guitarist is just another starving performer, looking to make ends meet by playing in the streets. Havent we all seen street performers play for money? The guitarist in this picture could be playing an entertaining song for some people passing by. He may have lowered his head to entice the audience to give him more money, a trick of the trade by appealing to their emotions. But why does he seem tired? Im sure if he were a street performer, hed love what he was doing. But there can be a ...

airframe essays

airframe essays I am interested in aircraft, especially airplane engines and structure. I have studied for five years in Japan about aviation maintenance at my high school and my college which have aeronautical engineering departments. Needless to say, I am majoring in the aviation maintenance technology. Aircraft are eminently related to physics. I therefore chose this book,  gAirframe h. I think that a person who is interested in aviation would feel interested in this book. I have already studied about some flight dynamics in Japan. I am therefore going to write about lift and a stall, wing curvature, axis of an airplane in flight, and my doubt in the book. The book gives an example of an airplane bound from Hong Kong to Dallas, TPA 545, which stalled on its way to Dallas. The circumstance was that the plane suddenly descended and went up, then it stalled and went down again. However, the pilots of the plane recovered the airplane fs balance and altitude, and the airplane made an emergency landing at Los Angeles airport. I am going to write about the reason why airplanes can fly before I write about a stall, because it is easy to understand a stall when the physics of flight are understood. Airplanes can fly by making use of lift. Air usually flows are both the upper and lower wing fs surfaces. There are differences in airspeed and air pressure between air flowing over the upper side and air flowing under the lower side of a wing. The air flowing over the upper side is faster than the opposite sides air, and the air pressure on upper side is lower than the opposite air pressure. The power to lift up, which is called lif t, therefore acts on the wing, and the phenomenon is known as Bernoulli fs principle. These are the reasons why airplanes can fly. A stall is caused by exfoliation of air on a wing. I think that there is some possibility of any airplane stalling from this phenomenon. In my opinion, the airplane was fall...

Cause And Effect Essay On Smoking Example For Students

Cause And Effect Essay On Smoking Microsoft Windows 98 README for Online Services and Internet Service ProvidersApril 1998 (c) Copyright Microsoft Corporation, 1998HOW TO USE THIS DOCUMENTTo view the document on-screen in Notepad, maximize the Notepad window. To print Services.txt, open it in Notepad, and then on the File menu, click Print. CONTENTSOVERVIEWPRODUCT SUPPORT AND PAYMENTSTO SET UP A NEW ACCOUNTTO SET UP YOUR COMPUTER TO USE AN EXISTING ACCOUNTOVERVIEW========The online services and Internet service providers (ISPs) listed in this folder are made available for your convenience. You can select any of the available online services or Internet service providers you like. PRODUCT SUPPORT AND PAYMENTS============================By selecting an online service or Internet service provider (ISP) listed in this folder, you are establishing an account with that company directly, not with Microsoft Corporation. The service you select can provide you with specific payment instructions. Microsoft does not provide technical support for the services that your online service or ISP renders. If you have any questions concerning a particular online services or Internet service providers policies or content, contact them directly. Technical Support contact information for the online services/ISPs in this folder are listed below. America Online (in the U.S.)-Telephone:Technical Support: 1 (800) 827-3338Sales and Billing: 1 (800) 827-6364America Online (in the U.K.)-Telephone: Technical Support Customer Service Centre: 0800 279-7444General Inquiries: 0800 376-5432Online:Further information about terms and conditions are available online. AOL Canada (in Canada)-Telephone:Technical Support: 1 888 265-4357General Inquiries: 1 888 265-4357Online:Further information about terms and conditions are available online. ATT WorldNet Service Telephone (U.S., Puerto Rico, and U.S. Virgin Islands):Technical Support: 1 800 400-1447General Inquiries: 1 800 967-5363Online:Members should get support at http://www.worldnet.att.net/careGeneral information for non-members is available at http://www.att.netCompuServe (in the U.S. and Canada)Telephone:Customer Service: 1 (800) 848-8990Signup Support: 1 (800) 336-6823Online:To access online assistance, type GO MEMBER. CompuServe (in the U.K.)Telephone:Customer Service:0990 000-400Signup Support:0990 134-819Technical Support:0990 000-100Online:To access online assistance, type GO MEMBER. For real-time technical support, type GO UKHF to access the UK Help Forum. The Microsoft Network (MSN)Telephone:Dial 888-MSN-TIPS (888-676-8477) for FastTips on MSN issues. Customer Service:Australia 02 9934 9000Canada (English) 800-386-5550Canada (French) 800-952-1110Canada TDD (English) 800-840-9890United Kingdom 0345 000 111United States 800-386-5550United States TDD 800-840-9890If you are calling from a country not listed above, dial 44 181 607 0012 for English-language Customer assistance. Technical Support:Australia 02 9934 9000Canada (English) 425-635-7019Canada (French) 425-635-7020Canada TDD (English) 425-635-4948United Kingdom 0345 000 111United States 425-635-7019United States TDD 425-635-4948If you are calling from a country not listed above, dial 44 181 607 0012 for English-language Technical assistance. Online:Click MSN Member Support E-mail to send in your question. Prodigy Internet-Telephone (U.S. and Canada only):Customer Service: 1 (800) 213-0992Signup Support: 1 (800) 213-0992Online:To access online assistance, go to HELP. TO SET UP A NEW ACCOUNT=======================If you decide to select one of the online services or Internet service providers listed in this document, click the icon for that particular online service or Internet service provider in the Online Services folder on the desktop. This begins the installation process for setting up access to that service on your computer. TO SET UP YOUR COMPUTER TO USE AN EXISTING ACCOUNT==================================================If you already have an account established with one of the online services or Internet service providers listed in this document, click the icon for that particular service in the Online Services folder on the desktop to begin the installation process for use with your existing account. Each online service/ISP is responsible for the way this process is handled.

HR article review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

HR article review - Essay Example With an identified knowledge gap in the relationship between human resource practices and employees’ performance, the study investigated relationships between human resource management practices such as recruitment and selection, training and development, employees’ participation, reward, maintenance, and separation, and employees’ performance. A cross sectional survey design was implemented and data collected a sample of 285 participants, out of which 198 offered the required information. A scale was used to aid data collection and regression analysis used to investigate relationships between the different human resource management practices and employees’ performance. Results identified significance of some of the human resources practices but not all. Recruitment and selection, level of employee involvement in an organization, reward, and maintenance had significant effects on employee performance. Other practices identified insignificant relationships to employee performance. The factors were further correlated and the authors recommends continuous evaluation of the human resource management practices in an organization because of effects of time factor and the developed knowledge is significant and comprehensive to human resource management that deals with issues relating to organizations’ employees (Tabiu and Nura 247- 256). Tabiu, Abubakar, and Nura, Abubakar. â€Å"Assessing the effects of human resource management (HRM) practices on employee job performance: A study of USMANU Danfodiyo University Sokoto†. Journal of Busines Studies Quarterly 5.2 (2013), 247-259,

Theories of the Atonement Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Theories of the Atonement - Thesis Example Secondly, man is sinful because Adam and Eve sinned. This unique position as federal head brought offspring where that sin was imputed. And, thirdly, no sinful person can atone for another person's sins; but only a sinless person can do it. The subjective assumption of the punishment of God in the New Testament seemingly under stresses the fact that there is room for clemency or forgiveness. However, if we look at both the Old and the New Testaments, God's justice and His forgiveness would seem two contradicting aspects of His person. In other words, it is quite inconceivable that God's justice and forgiveness can be reconciled or can exist hand in hand. This was depicted in the Old Testament where people saw the justice of God every time they fell into sin and were punished severely for it even at the very act of performing the blood sacrifice to appease God's anger. Part of God's creation, which, although perfect at one time, was yet disposed to be developed by man, for Adam was to care and till the garden. Here, too, the man Adam was to commence his own spiritual development which is why God endowed him with a free will. This unique position as the federal head, however, made it possible for Adam to make his preference. One choice to reach spiritual maturity was to train or develop his spirit through the exercise of obedience to the word of God, while his other choice was to lead man to reach spiritual maturity through the knowledge of good and evil. Adam would have still developed his spirit by recognizing the fact that all that is opposed to the will of God is an evil to be avoided and through voluntary resistance to such evil, to the full spiritual development or a godlike knowledge of good and evil. But by his eating of the forbidden fruit, Adam had to learn the difference between good and evil from his own guilty experience.

Which is bigger Feel the Fear or The Giant Essay - 2

Which is bigger Feel the Fear or The Giant - Essay Example The accurate and appropriate calculations including all the steps of arriving at the right answers are given in the report analysis section (Berry et.al 1995 pp24). The conclusion part will discuss and comment on the results obtained in the entire investigation. Mathematical modelling is the process of using the concepts of mathematics, as well as its language as a system of description (Berry et.al 1995 pp24). A model of mathematics is the idea of representing the relationship between numerous variables that are significant to a given question or problem. The model is used to solving and provide accurate answers to the given problems or situation. The process uses mathematics to solve situations and problems (Berry et.al 1995 pp24). The model guides the solver to find the answers to the questions asked. The modelling is used for a number of aspects including a description of phenomena in the real world, investigation of the observed world and its issues and questions, idea test and predict the real world among others. Questions one and two deals with the calculations of the maximum and the minimum height. The two questions are essential to the report since they determine the achievement of one of the most important research questions. The other questions, i.e. three and four all lie under the same topic of maximization and minimization. Question three finds the area and question four determines the length or the dimensions of the box. To conclude, the investigation gave the results and the data as expected. The mathematical is relevant to the calculations and analysis section of the report. The process of analysis was used in the report to find accurate answers to the mathematical problems in the report. Using the main ideas in the modelling process such as formulation and analyzing among others. The answers found are accurate and gives a general answer to the research questions. They play the analysis part in the report. The answers include the

Organisational Theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Organisational Theory - Essay Example Needless to say, the resultant assumption is that public sector organisations should undergo a process of organisational restructuring as would allow for the adoption of more efficient and effective management paradigms. There are, however, two problems in the above stated. The first is that the notion of decentralised organisational structures as being more inherently suited for the adoption of total quality and other management paradigms which allow for efficient and effective proactive responses to shifting external environmental conditions, than are centralised organisational structures, is fallacious and based on assumptions and not fact (Cane and Thurston, 2000; Flynn, 2002; Dent, Chandler and Barry, 2004). The second is that, ultimately, organisational structure must be consciously selected on the basis of that which is most suitable for the organisation in question, the culture which it aspires to and the demands of the industry in which it is located and the market which it serves. As a strategy for determining the relationship between organisational structure and organisational performance, the research will critically analyse both of centralised and decentralised organisational structures, together with a review of ... ave determined that public sector organisations are largely modelled after the traditional bureaucratic organisational structure, as influenced by Weber (Gibson, 1966; Cane and Thurston, 2000; Dent, Chandler and Barry, 2004). The implication is that all of the four components of organisational structure-labour division, departmentalisation, span of control and scope of decision-making-are shaped by bureaucratic-traditionalist managerial theory. This, according to numerous management scholars, has only served to offset an organisation's inherent capacity for flexible response to changing external conditions and has, in the long run, resulted in the formulation of mechanistic and atrophying organisations (Gibson, 1966; Ford and Slocum, 1977; Cane and Thurston, 2000; Flynn, 2002; Dent, Chandler and Barry, 2004). As explained by Flynn (2002) among others, labour division within the public sector organisation is invariably highly specialised. Task specialisations are clearly articulated and each employee has a specific set of job functions, clearly set out in his/her job description, which he/she must operate by (Bourgeois, 1984; Bourn and Bourn, 1995; Flynn, 2002). While the advantages of specialisation and clearly articulated job descriptions are practically too numerous to articulate, the disadvantages are enormous. Certainly specialisation implies that employees are often matched to jobs according to their skill-sets and explicit job descriptions mean that employees always have a clear understanding of the tasks they are required to perform and know the boundaries of their professional responsibilities (Bourgeois, 1984; Bourn and Bourn, 1995; Flynn, 2002; Mctavish, 2004). Excessive specialisation, however, as is often the case with private sector organisations

Museum Visit 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Museum Visit 1 - Assignment Example The mesmerizing sculptures were a depiction of life different from the modern world. Hence, these sculptures and portraits are the reminder of the people and civilization which was prominent, powerful, victorious and alive, but don’t existent anymore (" Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University") The work which intrigued me most was the Mummy Mask of a Lady whose artist was unknown and which belonged to 7th-6th Century BCE. Funeral ceremony in ancient Egypt included sculpted masks tradition, which was made for the deceased person to strengthen his spirit for the afterlife sake. Hence, these burial masks contained specifications in engraved form of a deceased person. Prominent Royal Family Members wore burial masks with specifications of their rank, status, gender, beauty and personality attributes. Thus, youth, beauty and royalty were the evident features of such masks. Ancient Egyptians believed that spirits can recognize its body through the mask. Moreover, death was a transitional process for them, a journey from one life to the other. Therefore, these masks were considered to be objects which had a power to turn a mortal into divine state. Masks hold significant position in the prevailing society as well. Thus, these invisible masks are often worn on daily bases, as available in the form of hypocrisy, selfishness, greed, lust and many more. In the prevailing society the aim of these masks, is to attain wealth. However, the ancients wore masks to become immortals. Since, there is a lack of agreement of life after death in the prevailing society therefore, people wore mask to gain material benefits only in this life. The Mummy Mask of a Lady transcended me into a different dimension of time. A time where funerals took over 70 days, mask of a deceased was a symbol or verification object to enter into another life with an identity. The peculiar features of the mask embossed the status of the deceased, in a life; which was over for him. However,

Which is bigger Feel the Fear or The Giant Essay - 2

Which is bigger Feel the Fear or The Giant - Essay Example The accurate and appropriate calculations including all the steps of arriving at the right answers are given in the report analysis section (Berry et.al 1995 pp24). The conclusion part will discuss and comment on the results obtained in the entire investigation. Mathematical modelling is the process of using the concepts of mathematics, as well as its language as a system of description (Berry et.al 1995 pp24). A model of mathematics is the idea of representing the relationship between numerous variables that are significant to a given question or problem. The model is used to solving and provide accurate answers to the given problems or situation. The process uses mathematics to solve situations and problems (Berry et.al 1995 pp24). The model guides the solver to find the answers to the questions asked. The modelling is used for a number of aspects including a description of phenomena in the real world, investigation of the observed world and its issues and questions, idea test and predict the real world among others. Questions one and two deals with the calculations of the maximum and the minimum height. The two questions are essential to the report since they determine the achievement of one of the most important research questions. The other questions, i.e. three and four all lie under the same topic of maximization and minimization. Question three finds the area and question four determines the length or the dimensions of the box. To conclude, the investigation gave the results and the data as expected. The mathematical is relevant to the calculations and analysis section of the report. The process of analysis was used in the report to find accurate answers to the mathematical problems in the report. Using the main ideas in the modelling process such as formulation and analyzing among others. The answers found are accurate and gives a general answer to the research questions. They play the analysis part in the report. The answers include the

Museum Visit 1 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Museum Visit 1 - Assignment Example The mesmerizing sculptures were a depiction of life different from the modern world. Hence, these sculptures and portraits are the reminder of the people and civilization which was prominent, powerful, victorious and alive, but don’t existent anymore (" Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University") The work which intrigued me most was the Mummy Mask of a Lady whose artist was unknown and which belonged to 7th-6th Century BCE. Funeral ceremony in ancient Egypt included sculpted masks tradition, which was made for the deceased person to strengthen his spirit for the afterlife sake. Hence, these burial masks contained specifications in engraved form of a deceased person. Prominent Royal Family Members wore burial masks with specifications of their rank, status, gender, beauty and personality attributes. Thus, youth, beauty and royalty were the evident features of such masks. Ancient Egyptians believed that spirits can recognize its body through the mask. Moreover, death was a transitional process for them, a journey from one life to the other. Therefore, these masks were considered to be objects which had a power to turn a mortal into divine state. Masks hold significant position in the prevailing society as well. Thus, these invisible masks are often worn on daily bases, as available in the form of hypocrisy, selfishness, greed, lust and many more. In the prevailing society the aim of these masks, is to attain wealth. However, the ancients wore masks to become immortals. Since, there is a lack of agreement of life after death in the prevailing society therefore, people wore mask to gain material benefits only in this life. The Mummy Mask of a Lady transcended me into a different dimension of time. A time where funerals took over 70 days, mask of a deceased was a symbol or verification object to enter into another life with an identity. The peculiar features of the mask embossed the status of the deceased, in a life; which was over for him. However,

What is the p-value of 1.92 Essay Example for Free

What is the p-value of 1.92 Essay The strategic plan for the first company is to grow 2.5 million dollars. The strategy helps an organization plan long-term actions to achieve the major objectives throughout the company. The key factors in a strategy include the market, product and the organizational development strategic alliance. The weakness of Tina’s plan is that it might not be enough change to drive 2.5 million in gross revenue. She may need more ideas to get her to 2.5 million. The strategic plan for the second company is to help improve the competitive performance throughout the organization. Ying’s strategy has three broad strategic options that help her collect receivables in a timely manner that should lead to accessible profits for the company. Ying is thinking outside the box to find a way to work with the locals who are out to sea for months on end and may have bills to pay while at sea, or may be short on cash because of the remote environment and lack of available jobs year round. Comparative Analysis Tina and Ying’s strategic plans have many things in common. Both took similar approaches to begin their strategic plans by providing company background, mission statement and values, etc. This approach provides readers information gradually, and makes the transition smooth. Both Tina and Ying also focused on the environmental analysis for their chosen organizations. However, there are many things different in Tina and Ying’s strategic plans as well. In Tina’s environmental analysis, she focused more on the organization’s external environment, especially the threats posed by the organization’s competitors. Ying analyzed her organization’s external environment from three aspects, remote, industry, and operation. As for the internal environment, Ying applied SWOT analysis to identify the organization’s strengths and weaknesses. Another major difference between Tina and Ying’s strategic plans lies in the implementation plans. In Tina’s implementation plan, she took a departmental approach, which means different department will have different objectives, tactics, action items, milestones, and tasks. Ying’s strategic plan focused on reducing accounts receivable days, which is a business office function, thus the implementation plan targets the business office specifically. The Selected Strategic Plan Choosing a strategic plan is difficult due to the writer being a participant. However in this situation Ying has already laid the foundation for the selection. Tina’s paper is a bit more robust when it comes to a strategic plan for the company in general. Tina has worked in all departments of her company in her fifteen years of service, which allows a broader insight of the company’s needs. However, though Ying is focusing on just one department within the hospital, changing the cash flow will help the hospital considerably. Unfortunately, the hospitals leadership team could take the money earned by the receivable department and invest it elsewhere if it is not part of a bigger plan. Ying’s paper is well written and shows great understanding of her department and its needs. Justification ADO is a small company with a need for an increasing workforce. To continue to support the resources brought on to grow different departments, the company must bring more cash flow to the bottom line. Team D believes that  Tina’s plan covers a larger scope, and with a few more tweaks will have a better chance of attaining the interest of investors. Giving investors insight to the company helps promote trust. A level of trust is necessary because investors want to make a strong return on investment. Investors must feel that a company not only has a the inspiration of an idea but also the methodical diligence of execution. Conclusion Members of Learning Team D learned not only how to develop appropriate strategic plan, but also a key to the success of any team project is cooperation and collaboration. Through the journey of this team project, members in Team D have helped one another, and made progress and improvement with one another. It was truly a successful team work.

Uniformity of gamma camera images

Uniformity of gamma camera images Introduction In 1958, Hal Anger developed the first ?- camera and forever changed the area of nuclear medical imaging. Angers camera (also known as scintillation camera or gamma camera) used a 6 mm thick scintillation crystal (NaI) coupled to seven photomultiplier tubes (PMTs), each 3.5 cm diameter, arranged in a hexagonal shape. The crystal was used to convert the gamma rays into scintillation photos which would then be converted into electrical signals by the PMTs. The output of the PMTs in Angers camera was analogue and represented continuous values of gamma ray energy and the position of the event. The camera had a collimator mounted in front of the sodium iodine crystal, which was used to stop scattered gamma rays and essentially form the image. In the initial design of the gamma camera all the circuits were analogue and the camera is still known as an analogue camera. The images were displayed in cathode ray tubes (CRTs) or they were imprinted onto photographic films which were used as hard copies.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Later on, with the development of electronics and computer technology, the analogue output of the photomultiplier tubes would be fed into a digital computer which would process the signals to form the clinical image. In order to achieve that, analogue to digital converters (ADCs) were incorporated into Angers design which would digitize the signals before feeding it to the processing unit. Gradually all the major electrical components of the gamma camera were replaced by digital electronics and in modern cameras the signals are digitized by ADCs installed individually in every PMT. The complete digitization of the gamma camera allowed for significant improvements of the prototype gamma camera. With the increased processing power available, modern gamma cameras can nowadays image at high count rates, can store digital images and display them directly onto computer screens. Furthermore, they can implement a range of corrections which have drastically imp roved the quality of the modern clinical images. Our objective in this essay is to describe the factors that affect the uniformity of gamma camera images, the technological advancements that have improved the cameras imaging quality and capability as well as the methods that are currently used to assess and correct a ? cameras uniformity. The basic components of a gamma camera and their function The general principles behind the function of a gamma camera are rather simple to understand. So, before we proceed onto discussing the uniformity of a ?-camera, we ought to mention its basic components and their function since they can affect image uniformity. The main components of a gamma camera are described below. The gantry of the gamma camera provides mechanical support to the detector head. The scintillation crystal [usually NaI (TI)], is maybe the most important component of gamma camera. Its function is to convert the incident gamma rays, originating from the patient, into scintillation photons. Between the crystal and the photomultiplier tubes, a transparent light guide is put in place to maximize the optical transmission of light from the crystal to the PMTs. Once the scintillation photons reach the photocathodes of the PMTs, they get converted into photoelectrons. The photoelectrons then, go through an amplification stage where their number is multiplied by a series of dynodes. Finally the electrons hit the PMTs anode and we get the output voltage that represents our signal. The photomultiplier tubes are connected to the pulse arithmetic circuits where the position and the energy of each event are determined. In addition, at the PMT output, gamma cameras incorporate a pulse height analyzer that determines which events get accepted based on their energy. This mechanism is put in place in an effort to reject signals arising from scattered photons that have managed to penetrate the collimator. The pulse height analyzer is also known as the energy window. The energy window is usually set to accept events with energies ranging from -10% to +10% of the peak energy. For example, when imaging with 99mTc (? emitter, 140 KeV, T1/2 = 6 h) the energ y window is set between 126 KeV and 154 KeV. The final component of the detector head of the gamma camera is the collimator. It is a lead plate with a large number of holes which is placed in front of the scintillation crystal. The main function of this component is to control which of the gamma rays pass through to the crystal and which ones are stopped. Gamma rays that travel parallel to the collimators holes (perpendicular to the crystal) are allowed through while oblique rays are attenuated. The role of the collimator is essential because it provides the PMTs with the ability to identify the location of each event and it stops scattered x-rays which spoil the contrast of the images. In addition, the collimator provides physical protection to the extremely sensitive and fragile scintillation crystal that lies beneath it. Camera Uniformity The term uniformity refers to the variations of intensity present in an image acquired using a uniform radioactive source. Factors that affect ? camera uniformity In the previous section of this essay we described briefly the function of the gamma camera. In reality however, things do not work perfectly. In fact there are numerous sources that can cause image imperfections and ruin the uniformity of our images. The most common sources and factors that affect image uniformity are: Collimator defects variations in hole size and angulation variations in septal thickness Crystal and light guide non uniformities in the crystals stopping power non uniformities in the number of scintillation photons emitted by the crystal non uniformities in the transmission of light through the light guide and the optical grease Photomultiplier Tubes variations in light collection efficiency with the events position in the crystal due to geometry variations in light collection efficiency with the depth of interaction in the crystal due to geometry variations in the quantum efficiency of the photocathode across the face of the photomultiplier tubes variations in PMT tuning gain differences between PMTs Count rate Energy of incident gamma rays To begin with, it is fairly obvious that a poorly constructed or damaged collimator will affect primarily the sensitivity of the gamma camera. The sensitivity variations arise from the fact that a defective collimator will attenuate gamma rays in a non uniform manner. That is to say, that the number of gamma rays which pass through the collimators holes will vary either due to differences in the septal thickness or due to differences in the angulation of the holes. So, the image will appear either hot or cold depending on the number of counts, thus ruining the uniformity of the image. The collimator, however, is not the only cause of imperfections. In an ideal world, the scintillation crystal would exhibit properties such as homogeneous stopping power, interaction with gamma rays only through photoelectric absorption, transparency towards scintillation photons and high conversion efficiency (gamma to scintillation photons). However, in reality, the crystal presents with variations in its stopping power which ultimately lead to sensitivity imperfections and the appearance of hot and cold spots on our images. As we mentioned above, this variation in counts is a manifestation of non uniformity. Furthermore, the scintillation crystals exhibit incongruities in their light output. This is attributed to variations in the doping of the crystal with the chemical which serves as the activation centre for the luminescence phenomenon. (In the NaI crystal the doping is performed using thallium). In addition real crystals exhibit non uniform transmission of light, in cases where the optical grease used to couple Crystal-PMTs is dried out, or if the crystal has been exposed to moisture in which case opacities (yellowing) are developed. Finally, non uniformities in the images also originate from variations in the fraction of light that the photomultipliers collect. Light is lost between the gaps of the PMTs array but also near the edges of each individual PMT due to reflection. The majority of scintillation photons are collected near the center of the PMT, where the collection efficiency is best. This causes the counts to appear as if they were pulled towards the centre of the PMT and results to non- linearities. Even, the smallest non linearities will result in large non uniformities in the images. Last but not least, we ought to mention non uniformities arising from variations in the function of the photomultiplier tubes. The photocathode of a PMT, in reality, does not convert photons into electrons uniformly. Its quantum efficiency is better near its center and deteriorates as we move toward the edges. In addition, different PMTs tend to exhibit slightly different gains which ultimately lead to non uniformities. For example, a PMT with a gain above/below the correct gain will result in fewer counts falling within the energy window, creating a cold area over the dysfunctional PMT. Drift in PMT gain is usually caused over time, due to ageing, exposure to magnetic fields (Earth, MRIs), temperature fluctuations or power supply instabilities. So far we have discussed how the function of the gamma camera components can affect uniformity in practice. For completeness, we ought to mention that gamma camera uniformity (specifically the intrinsic uniformity) can also be affected by other factors such as: the activity of the radionuclide used to image, the number of acquired counts, the source-camera distance and the source volume. According to Elkamhawy, Rothenbach, Damaraju and Badruddin the intrinsic uniformity of the gamma camera increases with the increase of the source activity. However the increase in activity must not exceed the count rate capabilities of the camera otherwise non uniformities may be caused. In addition, according to Elkamhawy et al., the intrinsic uniformity increases as the counts go up. This is something to be expected, considering the probabilistic nature of the phenomenon of radioactive decay. Poisson statistics teach us that as the counts become higher the relative standard deviation decreases. That is to say that the coefficient of variation is reduced as the number of counts goes up and the statistical noise decreases. Finally, there are reports of an inverse correlation between the source to camera distance and the intrinsic uniformity. As the distance increases the intrinsic uniformity is increased due to a more uniform attenuation of the gamma rays travelling towards the crystal. That is to say, when the source is close to the crystal the gamma rays have to travel longer to reach the edges of the crystal than the centre. (See figure 2). Therefore the gamma rays travelling towards B will suffer greater attenuation that gamma rays travelling to point A. This dif ference in attenuation will result in count differences thus increasing the intrinsic non uniformity. However, if we increase the source to crystal distance, the gamma rays will undergo more or less the same attenuation due to the inverse square law and the counts will be more uniform throughout the crystal. Developments in gamma camera technology that have contributed in uniformity improvements. In older, analogue gamma cameras, the only correction that could be performed was a sensitivity correction that dealt with sensitivity variations on the images. Following the technological developments, the high processing capabilities of modern microprocessors and the implementation of analog to digital converters into their design, modern gamma cameras have been equipped to deal with non uniformities through a series of corrections.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Differences in photomultiplier gain used to be dealt with using the cosmetic approach which entailed the individual tuning of each PMT to match the other. Advances in microprocessors now allow for more advanced approaches. Maps containing the regional differences in pulse heights, as acquired from uniform flood sources, can be used to correct on an event to event basis (on the fly). As we mentioned earlier PMTs are affected by various external factors and they are caused to drift. Novel technologies have been introduced into gamma cameras which enables them to keep the gains stable in real time. For example, manufactures such as Toshiba, Elscint and IGE have implemented auto stabilization techniques where LEDs are used to tune the PMTs. The LEDs emit light which is detected by the tubes and the output voltage is then compared with a reference voltage and the gain is adjusted accordingly. With the increased processing power other corrections are current ly being used too. Linearity and energy corrections are common ways to improve the degree of uniformity in modern cameras. In the energy correction the most common practice is to expose the camera to a monochromatic gamma ray source (usually 99mTc) and acquire reading for the energy in various positions. Theoretically, the energy signal should remain constant independent of location on the crystal. However, as we have mentioned earlier there is always a small fraction of light which is lost. So, the readings are compared to the mean expected energy and a map of correction factors is stored in the gamma cameras memory which is used to rectify any errors in the energy signals. The linearity correction has a similar function. We would expect every events position coordinates to appear as a linear combination of the PMTs output voltages. , Y. But again due to light losses that is never true in practice. Fortunately, this is easily corrected through the linearity correction maps similar to those that we acquire for the energy correction. First of all, we remove the collimator and we introduce a lead plate with parallel holes throughout its extent. Then the system is exposed to a uniform point source. The image is processed and the positional errors are determined and stored as a separate correction map. The final correction to be applied on an image is the sensitivity correction, which has been used in the past as the only uniformity correction of analogue cameras. In modern cameras the technicians first stabilize the gains of the PMTs and then they proceed to apply the energy and linearity correction which have the greatest impact in the cameras uniformity. Then, and only then, they proceed with the sensitivity correction. The correction maps for the sensitivity are acquired by exposing the gamma camera (with the collimator mounted) to a uniform radioactive source. The counts are scaled up or down to eliminate any remaining cold or hot spots on the image. We should note that the individual correction maps should be acquired for each collimator since the sensitivity variations are primarily caused by collimator defects and other factors that we have already discussed. The scientific community has not stopped at the abovementioned corrections. Manufacturers and researchers have shifted their focus to new technologies hoping to replace components that contribute to bad uniformity but also to improve other gamma camera properties (resolution, count rate capability e.t.ch). For example, position sensitive photomultiplier tubes have been introduced (Hamamatsu, Photonis et. al.), which are capable of detecting the location of the event more accurately and efficiently that conventional PMTs. In addition to that, silicon photodiode arrays are being used coupled to the scintillation crystals for improved light sensitivity and quantum efficiency. Finally, there is a shift of interest towards replacing scintillation crystals with semiconducting materials. The combination of cadmium telluride with zinc makes for a great x ray and gamma ray detector. The main advantage of semiconductors over scintillation crystals is that the first converts photons directly in to electrical current. Contrary to the scintillation crystal that needs to use the photomultiplier tubes which are a significant source of non uniformities as we have mentioned. Quality Control: Measurement of non uniformity in gamma cameras Maintaining good uniformity in clinical images is extremely important. Even the smallest degree of non uniformity can cause artifacts which can prevent doctors from diagnosing the patient or lead them to the wrong diagnosis. The assessment of a gamma cameras uniformity is an integral part of its quality control and it is carried out in regular intervals (daily or weekly basis). These kind of investigations are carried out to ensure that there are no, non-uniform areas in the cameras field of view. The uniformity of a gamma camera can be measured either intrinsically or extrinsically. In the intrinsic setup, the collimator is removed and the naked crystal is exposed to a low activity uniform flood source. This setup has the advantage that the measurements are not affected by collimator induced non uniformities. In the extrinsic setup the system uniformity is assesses and the collimator is mounted onto the crystal. The advantage in this case is that the conditions of measurement are closer clinical parameters since in clinical acquisition the collimator is always in place. As far as the flood sources are concerned, 99mTc and 57Co are the most common choices. The technetium has the advantage of being readily available in hospitals and can be used as a mixture of radioactive material and water to create a uniform flood source. Also technetium is the most common radionuclide used in daily medical practices. Moreover, the presence of water presents a more realistic scatter source re sembling scattering conditions in patients. The main drawback of the technetium flood source is that it has a short half life and must be used soon after its creation. In addition, the construction method presents with the danger of spilling and contamination. An alternative to 99mTc is a 57Co source which has a convenient half life of 271 days. The peak energy of cobalt is close to that of technetium which is convenient in cases where the cameras performance is energy dependent. On the other hand, cobalt flood sources are quite costly and are usable only for about a year. Furthermore, cobalt sources often contain amounts of other cobalt isotopes Co60 and Co58 which emit higher energy gammas and may affect our measurements. A common testing protocol is the following. The radioactive source is placed at a distance approximately 4 times the field of view to ensure that the variation between the counts in the centre and the edge of the crystal is sufficiently small (as we have explained in figure 2) and can be ignored. The crystal is irradiated uniformly and a few million counts are acquired (approximately 1- 5 million counts). We need to acquire a statistically sufficient number of counts to ensure that the Poisson noise is minimal. We make sure that all the right corrections have been applied before we assess the images. A visual inspection of the images usually reveals gross deviations in performance. However, once the images have been acquired they are processed, using the cameras software, to yield values for common parameters such as the mean uniformity and the corrected uniformity which are used to quantify the quality of the camera. The mean uniformity informs us for the overall uniformity of the c amera throughout the FOV. The corrected uniformity is acquired by removing the Poisson noise from the mean uniformity. Those are not the only parameters that we can examine and other such as the integral uniformity and the differential uniformity are often assessed. Conclusion The uniformity of a gamma camera is maybe the most important parameter that expresses the quality of the cameras performance. Non uniform areas in the field of view can result in misdiagnosed patients and low quality of clinical services. Thus it is essential to perform regular checks to ensure optimal performance of the ? camera. Assessing the uniformity of a camera is not easy. As a parameter, uniformity is dependent on many factors and there are many things that can go wrong. Gamma cameras require regular testing, responsible operation and expert knowledge of its governing principles to make sure that its performance stays within clinically acceptable levels. References Professor Richard Lawson, The Gamma Camera , Lecture notes for the Nuclear Medicine Module of the University of Manchester MSc in Medical Physics, 2010. Peter F. Sharp, Howard G. Gemmell , Alison D. Murray, Practical Nuclear Medicine , 1-19, 65-90 Springer Publications, Third Edition. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_camera EMITEL, http://www.emitel2.eu/emitwwwsql/encyclopedia.aspx, Scintillation Camera http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/ Gamma_camera_cross_section.PNG Abdelhamid A. Elkamhawy, Joseph R. Rothenbach, Srikanth Damaraju and Shamim M. Badruddin, Intrinsic Uniformity and Relative Sensitivity Quality Control Tests for Single Head Gamma Cameras, Nuclear Medicine Department, Cuero Community Hospital, Cuero; and Nuclear Medicine Department, Spohn Shoreline Hospital, Journal of Nuclear Medicine Technology 2000; 28: 252-256 A. Hughes and P.F Sharp, Factors affecting gamma camera non-uniformity, Department of Bio-Medical Physics and Bio-Engineering, university of Aberdeen, Forester hill, Aberdeen, AB92ZD, UK, Phys. Med. Bio., 1988, Vol 33, No.2, 259-269, IOP Publishing Ltd, 1988 A. Hasman, PhD and R.T Groothedde, Gamma camera uniformity as a function of energy and count rate, Department of Medical Informatics, Medical Faculty, Free University Amsterdam, The Netherlands, Department of Radiotherapy an d Nuclear Medicine, St. Radboud University Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands, British Journal of Radiology, 49, 718 722, 1976 William R. Hendee and E.Russell Ritenour, Medical Imaging Physics, Wiley Publications, 4th Edition, Pages 179-195, 198-215 http://csusap.csu.edu.au/~xzheng/lectures/phy232/phy232topic8.ppt, Gamma Camera (II), Charles Sturt University Hamamatsu Photonics, Position Sensitive Detectors, http://sales.hamamatsu.com/index.php?id=20231language=1 Wikipedia, Cadmium Telluride, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cadmium_tellurid Michael K. OConnor, Quality Control of Scintillation Cameras (Planar and SPECT), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, published on the website of the American Association of Physicists in Medicine. Uniformity measurement, Isotrak C-ThruTM Flood Source, High Technology Sourced Ltd, www.hightechsource.co.uk Length : 3.300 excl references and title.

Essay --

Looking at how Nepal’s consumer action is associated with the quest of finding modernity, modernity is an important indicator for changes for the better in the chains of economic, social, political, and even in relation to religious bondage. The definition of modernity lies from the daily demands and possibilities of transformation of social and material context against the deeply rooted cultural and moral values, system of prestige, and notions of propriety within Kathmandu (Liechty, 2003). Modernity help perpetuate its hold over society for those who hold the power. These changes in society can occur in response to people desire to fit into society and not only that. Finding modernization can be seen as a blind pursuit of westernization form rather than their content and values toward Kathmandu. Modernity has many attributes to influence middle-class system in Kathmandu such as that being modern can go beyond just being a self-centered individual. Modernity comes in many att ributes mainly through the process of mind and not through the lifestyles which include the implications of acceptance of diversity, endeavors the change within circumstances of a modern person, and beauty giving rise to one to bear the tyranny of life and energy to bringing desired changes to modernity. Overall, the Nepali quest of modernity has been in struggle in at least three centuries (Lal, 2001). Marx theory on class insist that cultural practice must be located in context of unequal distribution of power and resources between class usually hierarchal society, whereas in Weber theory on class, concern on the role of culture in social lifestyle including education and consumer goods (Liechty, 2003). The concept of Weber’s theory is very important in mi... ...ce or project of something performed by groups of people. The definition of class must go beyond the passive and objective of the meaning of â€Å"what is class† into â€Å"what does the class itself do in relation to cultural practice.† In Kathmandu middle-class society, the cultural process pertains to the practice of carving out the cultural space where that people can act and speak for himself or herself in existence of the established culture. This could be in a form of stories of morality and value, status and honor, consumer practices and goods, media consumptions, and creation of â€Å"modern youth† by class. People produce the cultural space of class when language, goods, ideas, and values are practice everyday (Liechty, 2003). You will be able to see the emergence of class after viewing the vivid ethnographic facts that are repetitively produced in the cultural practice.