Human Nature In Society

The roots of human nature are sunk deep into our history and experiences. When in our own lives we are to find the basis of our human nature, we must look to our early years, the formative years. Now take for example if we placed a newborn in the wild or in a high-class, well-mannered, wealthy family. The human nature of the newborn in the wild will be exactly that, wild and chaotic. While on the other hand the newborn in the well-mannered society will be well mannered and moralistic. Human nature is defined by the values that are taught and the values that society defines, if there are no societal values, human nature is doomed and lessened to that of wolves. Society defines the values and morals for its people to live by, common values. These values affect human nature and affect the way an even slightly self-conscious person behaves. An example of one of these societal values is table manners. Society has defined over hundreds of years of history to eat accompanied by utensils. Society also has set the value and that eating with your bare hands is un-civilized. Another example of a moralistic standard is not to steal. This value is taught by our parents and members of the society, the human society. So human nature has a conscience because of social morals and values. The formation and situation of human nature is dependent on these guidelines. Some peoples human nature may be to steal, maybe to survive but most humans have this as a wrong. Most people have developed a database of right and wrong. Although without society or modern civilization, human nature is reduced to a mind-frame of everyone for themselves and to basically survive. Without civilization Human nature is the same as the instinctual behavior of any human, eat drink, and sleep. Human nature is what separates humans from monkeys. Human nature as a balance of good and evil, humans can use their brain power for good or evil. Some aspects of human nature I encounter are events such as to decide between right and wrong, cause and effect. Human nature forms its basis of teachings at an early age. If you and I are taught good and right early on then our nature will be more knowledgeable and perhaps better. General human nature is different than individual but not by much. Generally, humans are a species that thrive to better their own lives and if possible others lives also. Human Nature also inhibits the qualities of greed, ambition, pride etc. The job of humans is to conform, to an extent, to society and its standards and values. Humans control or do not present these negative or positive aspects. Individually speaking, some people are more greedy than others, some more kind. Even though human nature includes many different aspects, most civilized humans, their nature is to an extent abide by widely accepted moral values. On simple value would be to live and let live, and if possible help. A societal value I am faced with everyday is to be kind and generous or at least to be polite to other fellow human beings. We can think of human nature to follow a kind of moral code such as many religions encourage. Encompassing all, human nature is not the pursuit of humanitarianism but the pursuit of once again, control or present certain qualities of ones characteristics and do this within the guidelines of society or on a larger scale humanity. Human nature is defined by the values that are taught and the values that society defines, if there are no societal values, humans are no different than animals in the wild. Human nature has aspects including love, greed, and ambition which dogs do not. But at the crux, humans do attempt, basically, to survive. Human nature is very complex in the task of approximating individual traits but when speaking of humanity all together its nature is different than animals in that we use our unique characteristics. Humans have wants and desires and also are capable of helping others in need.

A Day at the Beach in Cape Hatteras, North Carolina

When I woke up in the morning my mind began to run wild; imaging my fun filled day at the beach.   I imagined the warm sun wrapped around my back, as the warm sand rolled through my toes.I smelled the salty sweetness of the ocean waves that would soon carry me to bliss.   I saw parents with their children laughing and playing along the shore, as small waves crashed against their ankles.  Ã‚   I could not wait to get to the beach.After my mind calmed down, I quickly jumped out of bed and ran to the window to see the sun of my thoughts.   To my dismay, the sun was not there.   My eyes moved rapidly, searching for any possible sign of the sun’s rays.   All I could see was numerous thick gray clouds suffocating the sun and its rays.I told myself I would not let a few clouds interfere with my day at the beach.   I moved with haste, as I put on my favorite orange swim trunks outlined with blue stripes.I threw on a white tank top, grabbed my float, threw my big blue bea ch towel across my back and headed for the beach.   When I got out the door I heard the faint sounds of thunder in the distance.   I then turned up my nose and sniffed the air for any odor of rain to come. I only hoped that lighting was not far behind.I did not know how the weather was going to behave so I grabbed my float and tucked it under my arm and ran into the ocean.   My body began to shiver as I felt the cold waves rush against my feet. While my body adjusted to the temperature change, I sat on my float legs dangling on each side and waded close to the shore. I watched parents as their faces changed from gleeful smiles to concerned glares, as their eyes searched the dubitable sky.All of a sudden a loud crack of thunder pierced my ears. My body reacted immediately, as I jumped and slipped off of my float. I wasn’t too far from the shore, which enabled my feet to hit the surface.   I eagerly looked at the sky and saw a flash of lighting.   I grabbed my float a nd began to swim back, as I saw disappointed children reluctantly go inside from the beckoning call of their parents.Before I could put my feet back on sand, the sky immediately cleared up.   The sun came roaring out from behind the clouds announcing its return.   The gray clouds dispersed quickly as if they were afraid of the sun’s strength.   I gazed throughout the sky looking for any sign of bad weather.   To my surprise the day began to turn into my early thoughts of the beach.I was extremely happy with the new turn of events.   I reached shore and threw down my float and began to run through the sand.   I was so ecstatic that I stepped on three sandcastles, and tripped over a red shovel and bucket that one of the children left in the sand.   I rejoiced, as I ran down the beach along the shore.   My feet were moving swiftly, as I swung my arms to catch as much wind as possible.I stopped a half a mile down the stretch of the beach, when something clear and shiny caught my eyes.   I walked over slowly to the unknown object, careful not to disrupt its peace.   The closer I got, the more I began to realize what was before me.  Ã‚   This was my first encounter with a jellyfish.The jellyfish washed up close to shore because of the slight storm.   The waves must have carried it in. I was about to examine the jellyfish, when the tide rushed in and pulled it back into the ocean.   Just being able to see a real jellyfish in its natural habitat made my day at Cape Hatteras beach one the best.

Animal Testing

Animal Testing Essay Animal TestingThis theme song to a popular cartoon is a farce dealing with experiments carried out on animals. In the cartoon one mouse is made very smart and wants to take over the world while the other is clearly not as smart. While the cartoon makes jokes, the reality is that mice and other animals re being used for medical tests every day. For some people this testing brings up ethical questions. One of the biggest questions: is it really necessary to take the lives of animals in the name of science and for the betterment of humanity? For animal rights activists, like People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), the answer is no. PETA pressures labs into halting experiments because they believe that animals are not to be used by humans for food, clothing, entertainment, or to experiment on (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals 1). Its stance is that any testing is painful, inhumane, and unnecessary when alternatives are available. The PETA website says that animals, like humans, have interests that cannot be sacrificed or traded away simply because it might benefit others. (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals 2-3). Essentially, PETA is of the opinion that animals and humans should have identical rights. In their press releases PETA puts out pictures of rabbits with open flesh wounds and dogs with rashes on their skinsall in an attempt to disgust people into sympathy for their cause. In actuality the number of lab animals used has been cut in half in the last 25 years (James-Enger 254). Of the animals used, 90 percent are rats and mice (James-Enger 1). Moreover, 11 million animals die each year in animal shelters (Americans for Medical Progress 2) and an astounding 95 percent of the animals that die in America do so from human consumption (James-Enger 254). The reason that animal testing is appropriate is that there are regulations in place to minimize testing and pain, the alternatives are insufficient for now, and most importantly the information obtained from experimentation is irreplaceable. While animal rights groups such as PETA advocate abolishing all animal testing that inflicts pain on animals, proponents of testing cite laws and regulations which minimize pain and discomfort. PETAs position is based on the belief that humans are not superior to animals (People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals). The vice president of the Humans Society of the United States (HSUS), an animal rights group that is nearly as extreme as PETA, has been quoted as saying the life of an ant and that of my child should be granted equal consideration (Americans for Medical Progress 2). If, as PETA and HSUS say, animal and human life is equal, then putting an animal through any pain is immoral. However, there are laws in place to minimize discomfort and inhumane treatment. The laws limit the amount of distress and pain an animal is subjected to. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), the body that governs animal test ing, must approve all tests (United States Department of Agriculture 2). The USDA must also authorize the numbers and types of animals experimented on (United States Department of Agriculture 2). Tests can no longer be performed if conclusive data is already available. In 1991 it was discovered that Procter and Gamble had performed experiments on 300 guinea pigs when the data the tests was to obtain was already available (Animal Testing by the Cosmetic Industry 2). This is just one of the situations that newer animal testing legislation would have prevented or at least deterred. A fifty-point criterion for assessing pain is in place (United States Department of Agriculture 3). These points include everything from vocalization of pain to apparent depression. If there is no clear criteria then it is assumed that procedures that cause pain in humans also cause pain in animals (United States Department of Agriculture 50). When an animal must be restrained it is to be limited to brief pe riods of around three minutes (United States Department of Agriculture 3). This is similar to the procedure followed when a doctor holds a child to administer a vaccination shot. For all surgeries and painful tests, sedatives and anesthetics must be utilized (United States Department of Agriculture 49). If the test will leave the animal permanently damaged, euthanasia must be administered before the anesthetic wears off (United States Department of Agriculture 48). For humans this topic is still being debated, but animals are put to sleep every day when an owner or veterinarian decides the quality of the animals life will be too low for it to go on living. These few but important changes in animal research legislation have aided in improving animal welfare. PETA believes that the benefits of animal research do not outweigh the costs when alternatives are available; proponents argue that those alternatives are not effective. PETAs stance is that animal life is too valuable to risk on experimentation especially when there are alternatives, such as false human skin grown in culture, computer programs, and using human subjects. Taking a few skin cells and growing them into small squares of skin produces the false human skin. This piece of skin can be used to test irritation reactions to different chemicals. It is being used in the cosmetic industry, which has all but ceased animal testing. One problem with the false skin however is that it can only be exposed to water-soluble chemicals or it suffers extreme damage (D.E. 168). Furthermore, it currently contains no melanocytes, the chemicals that give skin its color, or immune cells (D.E. 168). It is not known how or if these substances effect any laboratory setting, but it is desirable for any experiment to mimic real life situations as closely as possible. Another alternative to actual animal experimentation is using computer simulations. These programs are like encyclopedias of chemical information. They can only run simulations based on information on chemicals and reactions that are already known. This is an obvious problem with this alternative. Computer simulation software cannot accurately predict the effects of enough situations and theoretical chemical combinations to be heavily relied on. What it comes down to is that there currently is no viable replacement for live, responsive cells. Jack H. Botting and Adrian R. Morrison point out that there are no basic differences between the physiology of laboratory animals and humans (Botting, Morrison 85). These similarities are what scientists need for experiments to be accurate. The matches are never perfect, but animal experiments are a good place for researchers to start looking for answers to questions that are important to human health care. Another proposed alternative to animal testing is to use human subjects. PETA suggests using people who have particular ailments who would be willing to participate in experiments. The problem with this alternative is that it is not scientifically sound. When conducting a scientific experiment, all variables must be controlled, and running tests on random human subjects does not give reliable results. Assuming that a researcher could find enough people to run an experiment, there would be too many extraneous variables, such as the subjects environment, genes, and other pre-existing conditions. With lab animals the complete medical history is known, the entire life of each animal is documented. Also they are selectively bred to produce genetically similar subjects. Simply put, lab animals are a cheap, reliable source of information. The benefits gained from animal testing are too widespread to ignore. Everyday life has been changed for the better because of this testing. As 1990 Nobel Prize Laureate Joseph E. Murray, M.D. said, Animal experimentation has been essential to the development of all cardiac surgery, transplantation surgery, joint replacements and all vaccinations ( Americans for Medical Progress 1). The numbers to back up this claim are that over 440,000 open-heart surgeries are performed and 11,000 kidneys are transplanted every year, not to mention that animal experimentation has made possible the salvation of 20,000 kidney dialysis patients each year (Botting 1). Also, the ability to test on animals has made possible the relatively safe and successful use of dangerous chemotherapy drugs to treat cancer (Americans for Medical Progress 1). Drugs such as this cannot be tested on humans because of their strength and potential for killing in inappropriate doses. If the proper dosage were not known, the results would be inaccurate and could be lethal. Many antibiotics and vaccines used today were developed and tested through animal research, as were insulin to control diabetes and nearly all modern anesthetics (Botting 1). It is hard to imagine life without some of these lifesaving drugs, or even the ones that do not save lives, just make life a little more bearable. It is likewise significant to note that animal testing has benefited animals as well. When a pet owner takes his or her animal to the veterinarian to receive shots, chances are that those shots are available because of animal experimentation. Heartworm, feline leukemia, rabies, anthrax, and tetanus are all preventable because of animal testing. PETA and HSUS are honorable institutions with admirable goals, but they are over idealistic and overzealous. That fact can best be described by the following quote: Animal rights activists blocked for two years research aimed at stopping transmission of HIV from mother to child. That research ultimately demonstrated how AZT can prevent babies from getting AIDS (Americans for Medical Progress). Sometimes the good of the many outweighs the good of the few. This does not mean that animal testing should go unchecked. Suffering is kept to a minimum by legislation and advancements in testing alternatives. As these alternatives progress, the number of live animals needed for testing will gradually decrease and eventually the need for them will hopefully be eliminated. But in the meantime, animal testing is too important to stop. The benefits waiting to be had are too important and any possible drawbacks are too insignificant to allow a halt in animal research. BibliographyBibliographyAnimal Testing by the Cosmetic Industry. (20 March 1999). Animal Research Saves Human and Animal Lives. Americans for Medical Progress. (20 March 1999). Animal Research Holds the Key to Saving Human Lives. Americans for Medical Progress. (20 March 1999). Ball, Matt and Anne Green, and Jack Norris. Veganism as the Path to Animal Liberation. The Animals Agenda Sep/Oct 1998: 44-45. Botting, Jack H. and Adrian R. Morrison. Animal Research is Vital to Medicine. Scientific American. 187 February 1997: 83-85. D. E. Skin Stand-Ins. Scientific American. September 1990: 168. James-Enger, Kelly. Beyond Animal Testing. Vegetarian Times. October 1998: 254. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. (20 March 1999). 21 Things You May Not Know About the Animal Rights Movement. Americans for Medical Progress. (20 March 1999). U.S. Department of Agriculture: Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service. Animal Welfare Report Fiscal Year 1997. READ: The Terminal Man Essay

1. What is your Managerial Philosophy Under what conditions it will Assignment

1. What is your Managerial Philosophy Under what conditions it will work and what may make you reconsider your managerial philosophy 2. What is ethics and what is ethical behaviour - Assignment Example The other condition where it would work is where the management lenders challenging but job related tasks, guidance to their success in these challenges rejuvenates the energy to work harder. However, there are extreme cases that lead to the reconsideration of this philosophy; when brooding and checking for potential leaders within the team, as a manager one has to drop this philosophy to observe the best skills or who could coordinate others in your absentia yet via the right business track. Ethics can be defined as a control mechanism involving systemization, defending and recommending various concepts termed as right or wrong that often address moral disputes or limit chances of moral dispute occurrence all together (Barbara, 2010). Ethical behavior means acting in a manner consistent with individuals or the society typically regard as good values. This behavior is healthy for any goal-oriented business. Ethical behavior is known to involve demonstration of respect for important and morally upright principles, which includes fairness, dignity, honesty individual rights, equality and diversity. In conclusion, management philosophies guide a business leader, but would be eased further by training the staff on the benefits of work ethics where they can guide themselves in the manager’s

Fictitious Letter to an editor Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Fictitious Letter to an editor - Assignment Example Other disorders include menarche or early puberty, liver disease, anorexia and bulimia eating disorders, high blood pressure, skin infections and respiratory problems. I believe that schools have a critical role in the prevention of childhood obesity. School programs can provide safe and supportive environment through practices and policies promoting healthy behaviors. Parents can prevent obesity in their children through changing the diet of the family and implementing exercise schedules. Children learn best through example and parents can take the opportunity to promote healthy lifestyles. Parents and care givers facing obesity challenges with their children can get help from several local resource information centers. One of them is Elders in Action on SW Washington Street and the Multnomah County Aging and Disability Services Department on Southwest 6th  Avenue. The resource centers are equipped with modern equipment and experienced nutrition professionals to offer appropriate

Information System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Information System - Essay Example Recent studies indicate that creation of new software systems requires the inclusion of the varied customer needs and demands. It is a complex task to include all the customer needs and requirements in to one software system. Development of new software systems faces the challenge of not being able to meet the customers requirements. Generalization of software systems is the only way to go while creating new software systems and yet there are records of several unused software licenses (Carlsen, Roger, &Willis, pg 17). This is because most software customers find the generalized versions, not up to date, and would prefer using customized software. On the other hand, it is more complex and expensive to create personalized and customized software systems, as it will require time and customer consultations. The success of creation of new software systems that most people will use will depend on how well the technical community that develops software systems understands the needs of the users. New software systems developers work in teams of people in order to increase productivity and innovation. In most cases and most of them are not fit for high-performance teams. Software creation requires people who are willing to think and work beyond the normal, and this can only be present in a highly motivated and effective team. Regarding the information science field, creation of a new software system will be lengthy, and is costly to complete fruitfully the development process (Sahu, pg 25). The world of information technology keeps on changing rapidly and by the time given software comes to the market; it may be already out dated. The ever-increasing competition in the software industry makes it even hard for developers to come up with new software systems that will match the ever-changing market (Carlsen, Roger, &Willis, pg 7). Another notable challenge facing development of new software systems is the overly rigid processes

The Importance of a Fire Department Safety Officer Research Paper

The Importance of a Fire Department Safety Officer - Research Paper Example OSHA guidelines were set up in order to lessen the risk of firefighter work-related injuries. Fire department safety officers refer to these guidelines for training and comply with them in order to keep their employees safe during and after emergency situations ("Fire service", n.d.).   Firefighters can be either on-call, voluntary or full-time firefighters. Voluntary firefighters are not eligible for pay or any workers’ compensation. In contrast, on call and full-time firefighters are eligible for workers’ compensation. Workers’ compensation is a law that allows employees to file for benefits when they incur work-related illnesses or injuries. These benefits can be medical in nature, including rehabilitation programs or replacement wages. Some employers require full-time employees to enroll in workers’ compensation benefits as part of their cafeteria plans. This ensures that in an emergency situation that may result in the injury or death of the employee, the latter will still get compensated. In order to avail of workers’ compensation benefits, an employee needs to file a claim ("Firefighters", n.d.). The claim has to coincide with the OSHA record logs that the employee did sustain an injury while working on the job or as a resul t of the working environment, like in the case of firefighters who are exposed to hazardous wastes and chemicals. Safety officers are responsible for keeping these injury logs so that when an employee files for a claim, they can present the needed documentation to support the claim. ("OSHA recordkeeping", n.d.)   When filing workers’ compensation though, volunteer firefighters do not get the same benefits since they are not deemed as employees. Even though they sustain the same injuries as full-time firefighters, when they get injured or get ill, their claims will be denied.     

The interface to a mobile (wireless) webcamera Essay

The interface to a mobile (wireless) webcamera - Essay Example In addition, a camera or a TV receiver can be added to the mobile communication terminal to display a moving picture. A mobile communication terminal equipped with the camera can display the moving picture and a still picture by taking a photograph of an object, and can also transmit a photographed image to other mobile communication terminals. in this way we can able to display the moving picture if any camera or a TV receiver can be added to the mobile communication terminal which have some high speed data and communication and voice communication will also be attended by using a mobile communication terminal. However, when taking a photograph by using the camera of the mobile communication terminal, a user must manually push a button on the camera body to activate a camera shutter. Therefore, if a user wants to take a photograph of himself/herself by using the camera of the mobile communication terminal, the user will have to stretch and extend his/her hand that is gripping the mobile communication terminal to a proper camera range and push the camera shutter activation button. Accordingly, although the user can take a photograph of his or her face or other body part, it is impossible to photograph the user's entire body when the user takes a photograph of him/her using the camera of the mobile communication terminal. by using the camera of the mobile communication terminal, the user will have to stretch and extend his/her hand that is gripping the mobile communication terminal to a proper camera range and push the camera shutter activation button.3. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION - Accordingly, the present invention has been made to solve the above-mentioned problems occurring in the prior art, and an object of the present invention is to provide a mobile communication terminal capable of taking a photograph by using a remote-controlled camera equipped therein

Refugees and Asylum Seekers Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Refugees and Asylum Seekers - Research Paper Example The situations that makes it impossible for a refugee to return to his home country must relate to something that makes it unsafe, dangerous or fatal for the individual to return to his home country. There are two facades to examine these situations that puts a person in danger. One angle is to view it from an individual perspective, where an individual, due to some activities or inherent situations is subjected to possible death, torture or inhumane conditions. On the other hand, a person might qualify to become a refugee if there is a situation that has been declared by the international community as a war or internal conflict. Chimni (2000) identifies that widest root cause of the exodus of refugees is ethnic reasons. This implies that people are more likely to become refugees because of persecution related to their ethnic views and identities. Chimni (2000) identifies two reasons for this. The first reason is that ethnic differences are susceptible to exploitation. Secondly, the control of a state by one ethnic group is likely to lead to threats to the lives of people of other ethnic origins. This definition of the term 'refugee' is consistent with Article 1 of the 1951 UN Geneva Convention. (Carlier, 1997). This UN statute makes it imperative for nations to take in persons who fall into the category of refugees to be given the status of refugee, which makes them entitled to some degree of help, support and rights in the host country (Carlier, 1997). Normally, a person who has a genuine fear in his home country moves into another country and applies for an asylum (Chimni, 2000). The asylum seeking process allows a potential refugee to present the reasons why he is fleeing form his home country. It is up to the authorities in the host country to assess the application and grant or refuse the application on several grounds. In most developed countries the reasons for seeking asylum is segmented to seven categories and each category has its own rules and proce sses (Hynes, 2011). Thus each application has to be put into one of the seven categories. When this is done, the relevant rules would be invoked based on the facts presented by the applicant. If the application is consistent with the rules for the specific category the application goes through, the asylum would be granted. And when this is done, a person's status is upgraded from asylum seeker to refugee. In this instance, the person is given basic necessities in life and allowed to live and work in the host country (Hynes, 2011). Technically, when an asylum seeker is granted refugee status, he cannot be deported back to his country of origin either until the person voluntarily goes back to the country or the situation in the country is declared over and there is no threat to the life of the individual in question. In some cases, an asylum application could be rejected on one of several grounds including abusive or unfounded (Hynes, 2011). An unfounded application is an application made by a person whose claim for asylum does not have a basis. An example is the case of a person who claims to be at risk in his home country because of a human rights situation that his country has guaranteed against. Such an application would be declined by most countries because it does not seem there is a real threat. The second form of rejection is where an asylum claim is defined as a means to a given end other than escape from a dangerous situation in a person's home country. A common

The Abu Ghraib Prison Scandal Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Abu Ghraib Prison Scandal - Essay Example The author made references to similar instances which apparently happened and documented through the experiment conducted by Philip G. Zimbardo, a psychology professor at Stanford University. Likewise, the reasons for the change in behavior were likewise supported through another set of experiments conducted by Stanley Milgram, which were discussed extensively in the article entitled â€Å"Perils of Obedience† published in Harper’s in 1973. Using these resources, the current discourse hereby asserts that the behavior of the American guards could be explained from the findings of experiments espoused by Zimbardo and Milgram. Analysis of the Situation To enable one to effectively respond to the question, there is a need to establish an examination of the situation that led these American soldiers to act viciously. As noted by Szegedy-Maszak (2004), â€Å"while many theories have been advanced about the forces that tragically came together at Abu Ghraib--inadequate traini ng, overzealous intelligence gathering, failure of leadership--none can adequately account for the hardening of heart necessary for such sadism† (p. 174). The article written by Jehl and Schmitt (2004) and published in The New York Times provided a more vivid scenario that presented conditions that set the stage for the apparent sadistic behavior. According to the authors, the members of the military police battalion who were sent to Iraq to serve as prison guards were untrained, unprepared, and completely inexperienced in this particular endeavor. Likewise, the Abu Ghraib prison was described as to detain as much as 7,000 prisoners, from an initial capacity of 2,000; which contributed to increasingly chaotic conditions, difficulties in overseeing, and effecively controlling security conditions. It was revealed that â€Å"in Abu Ghraib the soldiers suddenly found themselves under attack virtually every night from insurgents outside the prison† (Jehl & Schmitt: A trouble d unit, 2004, par. 19). The threat was reported to necessitate the infusion of military intelligence officers. These officers were noted to be the ultimate source of abuse. Factors that Explain the Behavior of American Guards In Zimbardo’s experiments, it was explicitly noted that abuses and atrocities actually ensued from the very power that was accorded to the students, enacting the security guards’ roles. As emphasized, from initially starting as ensuring that â€Å"they must maintain ‘law and order’ in this prison, that they were responsible for handling any trouble that might break out, and they were cautioned about the seriousness and potential dangers of the situation they were about to enter† (Zimbardo, 1973, p. 41), the presence of the following factors were actually evident and similar to the Abu Ghraib prison: (1) power to maintain law and order; (2) imminent threats from prisoners or from external sources of chaos that could endanger the ir lives; (3) the apparent need to conform to the norms of society in terms of responding to the social pressures of the prison environment; and, likewise, (4) the natural response for the application of forms of sadism, to purportedly control prisoners or make them submit to the orders given, with or without justifiable rationales. Using the experiment conducted by Milgram (1973), one could evaluate that the power of obedience was expected to have been ingrained in every individual’s being; and thereby, prison guards who are expected to be followed with regards to orders being directed to prisoners, resort to the authority and powers vested in them, to inflict whatever action is deemed necessary to enable their subjects to react and respond, as directed. As

High school education Essay Example for Free

High school education Essay We can all say education is a big requisite in life, but do we really spend the appropriate time to it? . We sure not†¦, at least I didn’t for a couple of years. Freshman year on high school could be hat year you would never forget. Becomes a new life style, met new people, new hobbies, and new interests. Basically turns out to your biggest change in life. My high school education could of say it was more fun and adventurous than those kids who actually are focus to graduate with a high GPA, get an efficient scholarship, and attend to a reputable university. I started out my freshman year good. I was attending to class, participating and doing class work, I was doing homework. I had no problems, then after my freshman year was over I had many friends that I was expected. Then I got to meet my true friends which I still hang out and do crazy stuff. My sophomore and junior year I went out of control laterally. I never was in school, just to go get my free lunch because, who didn’t liked to be in lunch? Right. To be clearer, anywhere was a better place than school. Yeah I had so much fun, memories than I would never forget, unexpected trips, water balloons fights, ride horsing, and four wheeling, ditching parties, even run away from cops. But like how it needed to happened, it happened. My slacking in grades would be known eventually by my mom. There’s one thing that I’ll be always glad for, I have the most overprotective mom in the world. Her reaction was immediately that the next day she knew about I was not going to school, she was there talking to the principle asking him to make a stop of it. All the trouble that I was into, and all the talks my mom and I had, it made my mind expand to reality and to convince myself that I was not doing good in school and that would affect my future. I catch up my senior year picking up my GPA and grades to proudly get thehigh school education and be able to register at CNM. College is a different level than high school by too much. Here you cannot take the risk to slack not even a little. If you slack not showing up, or not turning homework, grades are really affected. College has help me to raise myself as an adult and take proprieties first. That you are who build your future, that hard work always pays off. I’m thankful to attend to college.

Sociology Research Essay Example for Free

Sociology Research Essay Sexism is also known as  gender discrimination  or  sex discrimination, is defined as prejudice or discrimination based on sex; or behavior, conditions, or attitudes that foster stereotypes of social roles based on sex. Sexism is a form of discrimination or devaluation based on a persons sex, with such attitudes being based on beliefs in traditional stereotypes of gender roles. The term  sexism  is most often used in relation to discrimination against women, in the context of patriarchy. Sexism involves hatred of or prejudice towards a gender as a whole or the application of gender stereotypes. Sexism is often associated with gender-supremacy arguments. Gender stereotypes A 1952 magazine feature stereotyping women drivers. Gender stereotypes are widely held beliefs about the characteristics and behavior of women and men. Gender stereotypes are not only descriptive, but also prescriptive beliefs about how men and women should be and behave. Members of either sex who deviate from prescriptive gender stereotypes are punished; assertive women, for example, are called bitches whereas men who lack physical strength are seen as wimps. Empirical studies have found widely shared cultural beliefs that men are more socially valued and more competent than women at most things, as well as specific assumptions that men are better at some particular tasks (e. g. , mechanical tasks) while women are better at others (e. g. , nurturing tasks). For example,  Fiske  and colleagues surveyed nine diverse samples, from different regions of the United States, and found that members of these samples, regardless of age, consistently rated the category men higher than the category women on a multidimensional scale of competence. Gender stereotypes can facilitate and impede intellectual performance. For instance,  stereotype threat  can lower womens performance on mathematics tests due to the stereotype that women have inferior quantitative skills compared with men. Stereotypes can also affect the assessments people make of their own competence. Studies found that specific stereotypes (e. g. , women have lower mathematical ability) affect women’s and men’s perceptions of their abilities (e. g. , in math and science) such that men assess their own task ability higher than women performing at the same level. These biased self-assessments have far-reaching effects because they can shape men and women’s educational and career decisions. Gender stereotypes are sometimes applied at an early age. Various interventions were reviewed including the use of fiction in challenging gender stereotypes. For example, in a study by A. Wing, children were read  Bills New Frock  by  Anne Fine. The content of the book was discussed with them. Children were able to articulate, and reflect on, their stereotypical constructions of gender and those in the world at large. There was evidence of children considering the different treatment that boys and girls receive, and of classroom discussion enabling stereotypes to be challenged. Sexist and gender-neutral language Research has found that the use of  he  as a generic pronoun evokes a disproportionate number of male images and excludes thoughts of women in non gender-specific instances. Results also suggest that while the plural  they  functions as a generic pronoun for both males and females, males may comprehend  he/she  in a manner similar to  he, as  he  usually is placed before the dash and  she  after. This is usually done because the word  she  already contains the word  he  so it is positioned after the dash. It also has nothing to do with stereotypical gender roles. Nearing the end of the 20th century, there is a rise in gender-neutral language in western worlds, which is often attributed to the rise of  feminism. Gender-neutral language  is the avoidance of  gender-specific job titles, non parallel usage, and other usage that is considered by some to be sexist. Supporters claim that having gender–specific titles and gender–specific pronouns either implies a systemic bias to exclude individuals based on their gender or else as unnecessary in most cases as race-specific pronouns, religion-specific pronouns, or persons-height-specific pronouns. Some of those who support gender-specific pronouns assert that promoting gender-neutral language is a kind of semantics injection itself. Anthropological linguistics and gender-specific language Unlike the  Indo-European languages  in the west, for many other  languages  around the world,  gender-specific pronouns  are a recent phenomenon that occurred around the early 20th century. As a result of  colonialism, cultural revolution occurred in many parts of the world with attempts to modernize and westernize by adding gender-specific pronouns and animate-inanimate pronouns to local languages. This resulted in the situation of what was  gender-neutral pronouns  a century ago suddenly becoming gender–specific. (See for example  Gender-neutrality in languages without grammatical gender: Turkish. ) Gender-specific pejorative terms Gender–specific pejorative terms intimidate or harm another person because of their gender. Sexism can be expressed in a pseudo–subtle manner through the attachment of terms which have negative gender oriented implications  such as through  condescension. Many examples include swear words. A mildly vulgar example is the uninformative attribution of the term hag for a woman or fairy for a man. Although hag and fairy both have non-sexist interpretations, when they are used in the context of a gender–specific pejorative term these words become representations of sexist attitudes. The relationship between rape and misogyny Research into the factors which motivate perpetrators of  rape  against a specific gender, for example, women, frequently reveals patterns of hatred of said gender and pleasure in inflicting psychological and/or physical trauma, rather than sexual interest. Researchers have argued that rape is not the result of pathological individuals, but rather systems of male dominance, cultural practices and beliefs that objectify and degrade women. Mary Odem, Jody Clay-Warner and Susan Brownwiller consider sexist attitudes to be propagated by a series of myths about rape and rapists. They state that contrary to those myths, rapists often plan a rape before they choose a victim and that acquaintance rape  is the most common form of rape rather than assault by a stranger. Odem also states that these rape myths propagate sexist attitudes about men by perpetuating the thought that men cannot control their sexuality. In response to  acquaintance rape, the Men Can Stop Rape movement has been implemented. The US military has started a similar movement with the tagline My strength is for defending. Occupational sexism Occupational sexism refers to any  discriminatory  practices, statements, actions, etc. based on a persons  sex  that are present or occur in a place of  employment. One form of occupational sexism is  wage discrimination. In 2008, the  Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development  (OECD) found that while female employment rates have expanded considerably and the gender employment and wage gaps have narrowed virtually everywhere, on average, women still have 20% less of a chance to have a job and are paid 17% less than men. Moreover, the report stated: [In] many countries, labor market  discrimination  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ i. e. the unequal treatment of equally productive individuals only because they belong to a specific group – is still a crucial factor inflating disparities in employment and the quality of job opportunities [ ] Evidence presented in this edition of the  Employment Outlook  suggests that about 8% of the variation in gender employment gaps and 30% of the variation in gender wage gaps across OECD countries can be explained by discriminatory practices in the labour market. The report also found that despite the fact that almost all OECD countries, including the U. S. have established anti-discrimination laws, these laws are difficult to enforce. Gender stereotypes Gender roles  (or sex roles) are attitudes and activities that a society links to each sex. A culture that defines males as ambitious and competitive encourages them to seek out positions of leadership and play team sports. To the extent that females are defined as deferential and emotional, they are expected to be supportive helpers and quick to show their feelings. According to the  OECD, womens labor market behavior is influenced by learned cultural and social values that may be thought to discriminate against women (and sometimes against men) by stereotyping certain work and life styles as male or female. Further, the OECD argues that womens educational choices may be dictated, at least in part, by their expectations that [certain] types of employment opportunities are not available to them, as well as by gender stereotypes that are prevalent in society. There is a long record of women being excluded from participation in many professions. Often, women have gained entry into a previously male profession only to be faced with additional obstacles. Elizabeth Blackwell, the first woman to receive an M. D. in the  United States  and  Myra Bradwell, the first female lawyer in the state of  Illinois, illustrate the prevalence of women being excluded from certain professions and the changing culture. Professional discrimination continues today according to studies done by  Cornell University  and others. Some have hypothesized that gender bias has been influencing which scientific research gets published. This hypothesis coincides with a test conducted at the  University of Toronto  led by Amber Budden. The study showed that, in the journal  Behavioral Ecology, after implementation of double-blind review in which both the author and reviewer identity is concealed, there was an increase of 7. 9% in the number of papers authored by women. This was more than three times the increase of female ecology graduate students in the United States. In addition, women frequently earn significantly lower wages than their male counterparts who perform the same job. In the U. S. , for example, women earn an average of 23. 5% less than men. In 1833, women working in factories earned only one-quarter of mens wages, and in 2007, womens median annual paychecks reflected only $0. 78 for every $1. 00 earned by men. A study showed women comprised 87% of workers in the child care industry and 86% of the health aide industry. Some experts believe that parents play an important role in the creation of values and perceptions of their children. The fact that many girls are asked to help their mothers do housework, while many boys do technical tasks with their fathers, seems to influence their behavior and can sometimes discourage girls from performing such tasks. Girls will then think that each gender should have a specific role and behavior. A 2009 study found that being overweight harms womens career advancement but presents no barrier for men. Overweight  or  obese  women were significantly under-represented among company bosses, whereas a significant proportion of male executives were overweight or obese. The author of the study stated that the results suggest that the glass ceiling effect on womens advancement may reflect not only general negative stereotypes about the competencies of women, but also weight bias that results in the application of stricter appearance standards to women. Overweight women are evaluated more negatively than overweight men. There is a tendency to hold women to harsher weight standards. At other times, there are accusations that some traditionally female professions have been or are being eliminated by its roles being subsumed by a male dominated profession. The assumption of baby delivery roles by doctors with the subsequent decline of  midwifery  is sometimes claimed to be an example. Wage gap [pic] Euro stat  found a persisting gender pay gap of 17. 5% on average in the 27  EU Member States  in 2008. Similarly, the OECD  found that female full-time employees earned 17% less than their male counterparts across OECD countries in 2009. In the U. S. , the female-to-male earnings ratio was 0. 77 in 2009, meaning that, in 2009, female full-time, year round (FTYR) workers earned 77% as much as male FYTR workers. Womens earnings relative to mens fell from 1960 to 1980 (from 60. 7 percent to 60. 2%) and then rose rapidly from 1980 to 1990 (from 60. 2% to 71. 6%), and less rapidly from 1990 to 2000 (from 71. 6% to 73. 7%) and from 2000 to 2009 (from 73. 7% to 77. 0%). At the time when the first  Equal Pay Act  was passed in 1963, female full-time workers earned 58. 9% as much as male full-time workers. The gender pay gap has been attributed to differences in personal and workplace characteristics between women and men (education, hours worked, occupation etc. as well as direct and indirect discrimination in the labor market (gender stereotypes, customer and employer bias, etc. ). Studies always find that some portion of the gender pay gap remains unexplained even after controlling factors that are assumed to influence earnings. The unexplained portion of the wage gap is attributed to gender discrimination. The estimates for the discriminatory component of the gender pay gap vary widely. The OECD estimated that approximately 30% of the gender pay gaps across OECD countries is due to discrimination. Australian research shows that discrimination accounts for approximately 60% of the wage differentials between women and men. Studies examining the gender pay gap in the United States  show that large parts of the wage differential remain unexplained even after controlling for factors that affect pay. One study examined college graduates and found that the portion of the pay gap that remains unexplained after all other factors are taken into account is 5% one year after graduating college and 12% 10 years after graduation. Research done at  Cornell University  and elsewhere indicates that mothers are less likely to get hired than equally qualified fathers and, if hired, would be paid a lower salary than male applicants with children. The  OECD  found that a significant impact of children on women’s pay is generally found in the United Kingdom and the United States. ]  Fathers, on the other hand, earn  $7,500 more on average that than men without children. Glass ceiling The term glass ceiling is used to describe a perceived barrier to advancement based on discrimination, particularly gender discrimination. In academic achievement, great improvements have been made. However, as of 1995 in the United States, women received about half of all Masters degrees, but 95 to 97% of the senior managers of Fortune 1000 Industrial and Fortune 500 companies were male and in the Fortune 2000 Industrial and service companies, only 5% of senior managers were women. The  United Nations  asserts progress in bringing women into leadership and decision making positions around the world remains far too slow. Objectification Some argue that  sexual objectification  is a form of sexism. Some countries, such as  Norway  and  Denmark, have laws against sexual objectification in advertising. Nudity itself is not banned, and nude people can be used to advertise a product, but only if they are relevant to what is being advertised. Sol Olving, head of Norways Kreativt Forum, an association of the countrys top advertising agencies, explained, You could have a naked person advertising shower gel or a cream, but not a woman in a bikini draped across a car. Sexism in the Workplace Sexism in education is clearly associated with sexism in the workplace. When women are expected to â€Å"stay in the home,† they are unable to access the necessary educational resources to compete with men in the job market. If by chance they are able to secure a position, women may be less prepared educationally for the task, and thus draw lower wages. In recent decades more women have entered the United States workforce. After WWII (from about 1947), about 30 percent of women were employed outside the home; today, at the start of the 21st century, the figure is well over 50 percent. (Some estimates approach 75 percent if â€Å"part-time† jobs are included. Yet women are far from treated equally on the job. Typically, they hold lower-paying, lower-status jobs than men. In fact, women may account for only 25 percent of the upper-level managers in large corporations. And although half of the employees in the largest, most prestigious firms around the United States may be women, perhaps as few as 5 percent or less actually hold senior positions. In general, women are under-represented in the higher-status, higher-paying occupations, such as university teaching, law, engineering, and medicine. In contrast, women are over-represented in the lower-paying occupations, such as public-school teaching, nursing, and secretarial work. In stereotypical female jobs, referred to as  womens ghettos, women are subordinate to the positions of men. For example, executives supervise secretaries who are likely to be women, and lawyers supervise paralegals, who are also likely to be women. Women in the same jobs as men usually earn less, even though these women may have the same or better training, education, and skills. As a general statistic, women make only 60 percent or less than men in comparable positions. Why this disparity? Sociologists speculate that, in some cases, the fact that women often must take time off to have and raise children interrupts their career path. As much as Americans may hate to admit it, women in the United States still bear the primary responsibilities of child-rearing. Conflicting demands may partly explain why married women with children are more likely to leave their jobs than are childless and single women. Also, men are seen as the â€Å"chief bread winners,† so the belief is that they should be paid more than women in order to support their families. Whatever the reason, paying women less than men for equally demanding work is discrimination.

Nanoparticles Obtained by Using Different Gelation Solution

Nanoparticles Obtained by Using Different Gelation Solution 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Size of nanoparticles obtained by using different gelation solution 3.1.1 Size of different alginate-based nanoparticles at fixed enzyme and Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono-oleate (surfactant) concentration Various alginate based nanoparticles were prepared by using different gelling solutions as given in method . The size of nanoparticles determined by DLS is given in table-1. Table-1: Showing size and intensity of nanoparticles at single concentration of surfactant used and enzyme immobilized S. No. Surfactant Conc. (mM) Enzyme Conc. (mg/mL) Cross-linking agent Peak size, diameter (nm) [Day 0] Intensity (%) Peak size, diameter (nm) [Day 3] Intensity (%) 1. 8.203 2.5 BaCl2 89.437 90.6 97.83 74.4 2. CaCl2 87.883 94.3 161.6 54 3. SrCl2 69.193 75.2 91.38 62 4. NiCl2 421.833 100 537.6 75.5 Size was measured on the same day as the preparation of alginate based nanoparticles and there was uniformity in size distribution of the peak diameter which is shown in figures-1, 2, 3 and 4. Figure 1: Size distribution of Ba-alginate nanoparticles: A) on same day and B) after three days. Figure 2: Size distribution of Ca-alginate nanoparticles: A) on same day and B) after three days. Figure 3: Size distribution of Sr-alginate nanoparticles: A) on same day and B) after three days. Figure 4: Size distribution of Ni-alginate nanoparticles: A) on same day and B) after three days. It could be seen that when size was determined on the same day (Day 0), uniformity was observed in the peak diameter. However, when size was determined after 3 days from the development of nanoparticles, the size was found to increase and the distribution was random. This happens due to Oswald ripening. 3.1.2 Size of different alginate based nanoparticles at varying surfactant concentration Different alginate based nanoparticles were developed without enzyme immobilization at different concentrations of surfactant ranging from below critical micelle concentration value to its double as given in Method . The size of nanoparticles is depicted in table-2. Table-2: Showing size and intensity of nanoparticles at different concentrations of surfactant used (no enzyme immobilized) S. No. Surfactant Concentration (mM) Cross-linking agent Peak size, diameter (nm) [Day 0] Intensity (%) 1. 0.006 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 104.5 70.01 165.9 135 53.7 57.9 61 79.5 2. 0.012 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 384.5 150 463.7 193.5 94.3 100 100 100 3. 0.024 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 339.2 71.03 49.65 127.5 52.8 50.9 69.3 62.8 It has been observed from the table that as the concentration of surfactant increases, the size and shape become more regular. Below the critical micelle concentration of the surfactant, uneven and irregular shaped particles were formed. This observation is validated by the size determination of the nanoparticles using dynamic light scattering at different concentrations of the surfactant as shown in figures 5, 6, 7 and 8. Figure 5: Size distribution of Ba-alginate nanoparticles: A) at below CMC (0.006mM) B) at CMC (0.012mM) and C) above CMC (0.024mM) of the surfactant. D) Plot of the peaks of alginate nanoparticles obtained against three different concentrations of surfactant used. Figure 6: Size distribution of Ca-alginate nanoparticles: A) at below CMC (0.006mM) B) at CMC (0.012mM) and C) above CMC (0.024mM) of the surfactant. D) Plot of the peaks of alginate nanoparticles obtained against three different concentrations of surfactant used. Figure 7: Size distribution of Sr-alginate nanoparticles: A) at below CMC (0.006mM) B) at CMC (0.012mM) and C) above CMC (0.024mM) of the surfactant. D) Plot of the peaks of alginate nanoparticles obtained against three different concentrations of surfactant used. Figure 8: Size distribution of Ni-alginate nanoparticles: A) at below CMC (0.006mM) B) at CMC (0.012mM) and C) above CMC (0.024mM) of the surfactant. D) Plot of the peaks of alginate nanoparticles obtained against three different concentrations of surfactant used. 3.1.3 Size of different alginate-based nanoparticles at varying enzyme concentrations but fixed surfactant concentration Nanoparticles of various sizes and shapes were made by varying the concentrations of enzyme which was immobilized in the alginate matrix as described in Method. The different sizes obtained against differently immobilized enzyme concentrations are shown in table-3. Table-3: Showing size and intensity of nanoparticles at different concentrations of enzyme immobilized against a constant surfactant concentration S. No. Surfactant Conc. (mM) Enzyme Conc. (mg/mL) Cross-linking agent Peak size, diameter (nm) [Day 0] Intensity (%) 1. 8.203 1 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 79.11 110.7 66.48 61.79 53.3 77.2 51 58.4 2. 2.5 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 89.437 87.883 69.193 421.833 90.6 94.3 75.2 100 3. 5 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 65.78 146.5 70.09 138.2 51.1 83.3 43.5 58.2 4. 7.5 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 81.18 218.8 83.91 65.84 54.6 91.4 63.2 80.6 Figures 9, 10, 11 and 12 show the changing size of the nanoparticles with change in the concentration of enzyme immobilized in alginate matrix. A comparative graphical plot has also been incorporated to display the change in size against varying enzyme concentration for each of the cross-linking agents. Figure 9: Size distribution of Ba-alginate nanoparticles: A) at 1mg/mL B) at 2.5mg/mL C) at 5mg/mL and D) at 7.5mg/mL of enzyme concentration encapsulated in alginate nano-beads. E) Plot for the variation of peak size against changing enzyme concentration. Figure 10: Size distribution of Ca-alginate nanoparticles: A) at 1mg/mL B) at 2.5mg/mL C) at 5mg/mL and D) at 7.5mg/mL of enzyme concentration encapsulated in alginate nano-beads. E) Plot for the variation of peak size against changing enzyme concentration. Figure 11: Size distribution of Sr-alginate nanoparticles: A) at 1mg/mL B) at 2.5mg/mL C) at 5mg/mL and D) at 7.5mg/mL of enzyme concentration encapsulated in alginate nano-beads. E) Plot for the variation of peak size against changing enzyme concentration. Figure 12: Size distribution of Ni-alginate nanoparticles: A) at 1mg/mL B) at 2.5mg/mL C) at 5mg/mL and D) at 7.5mg/mL of enzyme concentration encapsulated in alginate nano-beads. E) Plot for the variation of peak size against changing enzyme concentration. From the various figures of nanoparticles, it could be seen that the average peak size of nanoparticles increase with increasing concentration of enzyme for Barium, Calcium and Strontium. However, in case of Nickel, the size is maximum at 2.5mg/mL concentration of enzyme and it decreases for higher concentrations of enzyme. 3.1.4 Size of different alginate-based nanoparticles at different pH for fixed enzyme and surfactant concentrations Nanoparticles of different sizes and forms were prepared by varying the pH of the buffer solution as described in Method. The peak size diameter of the nanoparticles synthesized is given in table-4. Table-4: Showing size and intensity of nanoparticles at different pH of buffer for enzyme immobilized in alginate matrix against a constant surfactant concentration S. No. Surfactant Conc. (mM) Enzyme Conc. (mg/mL) pH of Buffer Cross-linking agent Peak size, diameter (nm) [Day 0] Intensity (%) 1. 8.203 2.5 5.36 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 178.9 256.1 292 349.1 84.6 88.9 71.9 100 2. 7.04 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 89.437 87.883 69.193 421.833 90.6 94.3 75.2 100 3. 10 BaCl2 CaCl2 SrCl2 NiCl2 254.9 608.2 205.1 496 84.8 57.6 78.7 100 Figure 13: Size distribution of Ba-alginate nanoparticles: A) at pH 5.36 B) at pH 7.04 and C) at pH 10 of the buffer of alginate matrix. D) Plot shows the variation of peak size against changing pH. Figure 14: Size distribution of Ca-alginate nanoparticles: A) at pH 5.36 B) at pH 7.04 and C) at pH 10 of the buffer of alginate matrix. D) Plot shows the variation of peak size against changing pH. Figure 15: Size distribution of Sr-alginate nanoparticles: A) at pH 5.36 B) at pH 7.04 and C) at pH 10 of the buffer of alginate matrix. D) Plot shows the variation of peak size against changing pH. Figure 16: Size distribution of Ni-alginate nanoparticles: A) at pH 5.36 B) at pH 7.04 and C) at pH 10 of the buffer of alginate matrix. D) Plot shows the variation of peak size against changing pH. From figures 13 and 14, it can be clearly seen that size of the nanoparticles is the smallest at pH 7 and largest at pH 10 for BaCl2 and CaCl2. In case of figure 15, size is smallest at pH 7 but largest at pH 5.36 for SrCl2. However, in case of figure 16, size increases in ascending order from pH 5.36 to pH 10 for NiCl2. 3.2 Determination of membrane structure of the nanoparticles using infrared spectroscopy The characteristic bands for different regions of sodium alginate and its overlay with the nanoparticles developed through Method using BaCl2, CaCl2, NiCl2 and SrCl2 solutions as cross-linking agents are shown in figure 17. Figure 17: FT-IR results of alginate nanoparticles showing intensity bands From figure 17, it is clear that all peaks have shifted downfield. This results in stretching of the bonds between various functional groups and so bond length of increases. Spectroscopic analyses of the alginate-based nanoparticles were based on three distinctive regions of intensity and frequency. The spectroscopic peaks obtained from the graph and their relative assignment to various regions or vibrations or stretching are given in table-5. Table-5: FT-IR Transmittance bands (cm-1) of alginate-based nanoparticles Barium Nanoparticle Calcium Nanoparticle Strontium Nanoparticle Nickel Nanoparticle Assignment 720 886 908 1024 1038 1072 1118 1154 1286 1378 1464 1610 1626 1734 2346 2852 2922 2956 3436 3448 720 886 908 964 994 1024 1072 1118 1152 1284 1378 1408 1452 1464 1600 1608 1690 1728 2346 2852 2922 2956 3434 3450 670 718 832 886 892 906 952 1094 1250 1294 1350 1378 1450 1460 1638 1724 2344 2362 2852 2922 2954 3442 3676 3690 3770 3806 3822 3906 676 710 902 952 1018 1154 1298 1318 1350 1406 1438 1460 1482 1548 1642 1962 2346 2852 2920 2960 3010 3430 3806 3904 ÃŽ ½ (CO), ÃŽ ½ (CC), ÃŽ ´(COH) ÃŽ ½ (CO), ÃŽ ´ (CCO), ÃŽ ´ (CC) ÃŽ ½ (CO), ÃŽ ½s (CC) ÃŽ ½ (COC), ÃŽ ½ (OH) ÃŽ ´ (OH), ÃŽ ´ (CH), Ï„ (CH), ω (CH). ÃŽ ½s (COO) Amide II Amide I ÃŽ ½s (CH2) ÃŽ ½a (CH2) ÃŽ ½: stretching; ÃŽ ´: bending; Ï„: twisting; ω: wagging; s: symmetric; a: asymmetric The carbohydrate region is present between frequencies 1200-800 cm-1 as is shown in figure 19. Coupling of ÃŽ ½ (C – O) + ÃŽ ½ (C – C) + ÃŽ ´ (C – O – H) vibrations give the carbohydrate region. The mean peak for Barium and Calcium was observed at 1072 cm-1 while for strontium it was observed at 1094cm-1. The overall FT-IR spectra of the different alginate-based nanoparticles are shown in figure 18.The protein region is present between 1700-1480 with bands centered near 1640 cm-1. Asymmetric stretching bands of carboxylate group (ÃŽ ½a COO) were observed near 1600 cm-1 for the various nanoparticles and symmetric stretching band of carboxylate group were centered near 1462 cm-1. In infrared spectra the methylene groups show asymmetric stretching (ÃŽ ½a CH2) near 2922 cm-1 and symmetric stretching (ÃŽ ½sCH2) near 2852 cm-1. OH and NH stretching (3000-3600 cm-1) with peaks at 3436 cm-1 (for Ba), 3434 cm-1 (for Ca), 3442 cm-1 (for Sr) and 3430 cm-1 (for Ni). N.B. Results of FT-IR spectra of D-series nanoparticles are awaited. Figure 18: FT-IR spectra of A) Ca-alginate nanoparticles B) Ba-alginate nanoparticles C) Sr-alginate nanoparticles and D) Ni-alginate nanoparticles Figure 19: FT-IR spectra for carbohydrate region (1200-800cm-1) of A) Ca-alginate nanoparticles B) Ba-alginate nanoparticles C) Sr-alginate nanoparticles and D) Ni-alginate nanoparticles Figure 20: FT-IR spectra for protein region (1700-1480cm-1); asymmetric and symmetric COO stretching of A) Ca-alginate nanoparticles B) Ba-alginate nanoparticles C) Sr-alginate nanoparticles and D) Ni-alginate nanoparticles 3.3 Determination of shape and size of alginate-nanoparticles using SEM DLS method is not a perfect technique for the determination of size of nanoparticles. So SEM studies are undertaken to have accuracy in size measurement. Figure 21: SEM picture of A) Ba-alginate nanoparticles B) Ca-alginate nanoparticles C) Sr-alginate nanoparticles and D) Ni-alginate nanoparticles (same scale for all images). For SEM-imaging of alginate based nanoparticles prepared using various geling conditions, the samples were gold coated as described in Method. Average size of barium-alginate nanoparticles was 86.8 nm (diameter) and the shape of the beads formed after enzyme encapsulation were spherical. Spherical shaped beads were also formed in case of calcium-alginate nanoparticles with average size of 51.4 nm (diameter). Strontium-alginate nanoparticles also had spherical shaped bead formation with average diameter of 45.3 nm. In case of nickel-alginate nanoparticles, the majority of the particles were rod-shaped with average height of the rods being 310.8 nm. Also, some minor beads were formed having spherical shape and average diameter of 102.3 nm. 3.4 Measurement of UV-visible spectra The UV-visible spectral determination of absorbance of the alginate based nanoparticles was determined within 200-400nm baseline range. Figure 22: UV-visible spectra of Ba-alginate nanoparticles A) At CMC (w/o enzyme) B) At double CMC (w/o enzyme) C) At 1mg/mL enzyme concentration D) At 2.5mg/mL enzyme concentration E) At 5mg/mL enzyme concentration and F) At 7.5mg/mL enzyme concentration. Figure 22: UV-visible spectra of Ca-alginate nanoparticles A) At CMC (w/o enzyme) B) At double CMC (w/o enzyme) C) At 1mg/mL enzyme concentration D) At 2.5mg/mL enzyme concentration E) At 5mg/mL enzyme concentration and F) At 7.5mg/mL enzyme concentration. Figure 23: UV-visible spectra of Sr-alginate nanoparticles A) At CMC (w/o enzyme) B) At double CMC (w/o enzyme) C) At 1mg/mL enzyme concentration D) At 2.5mg/mL enzyme concentration E) At 5mg/mL enzyme concentration and F) At 7.5mg/mL enzyme concentration. Figure 24: UV-visible spectra of Ni-alginate nanoparticles A) At CMC (w/o enzyme) B) At double CMC (w/o enzyme) C) At 1mg/mL enzyme concentration D) At 2.5mg/mL enzyme concentration E) At 5mg/mL enzyme concentration and F) At 7.5mg/mL enzyme concentration. From the spectral figures 21, 22, 23 and 24 it can be clearly seen that the ÃŽ »MAX for the different alginate-nanoparticles is around 235nm. It can also be clearly seen that the protein content at 280nm increases with increase in the concentration of enzyme immobilized in the alginate matrix. The spectra of the alginate nanoparticles show peaks and stretching only within the UV range of 200-330 nm of the spectra and then the absorbance becomes constant. The nanoparticles which were made without the immobilization of enzyme at CMC and double CMC of Polyoxyethylene sorbitan mono-oleate had the least absorbance at 280 nm in all the different types of nanoparticles depicting the fact that no enzyme was encapsulated within them. 3.4.1 Variation of O.D. with protein content Figure 25: O.D. variation plot against varying protein content at 280nm for A) Ba-alginate nanoparticles B) Ca-alginate nanoparticles C) Sr-alginate nanoparticles and D) Ni-alginate nanoparticles. From figure 24, it can be seen that Nickel-alginate nanoparticles have the highest amount of protein immobilized within the matrix. While, the protein immobilized in Barium, Calcium and Strontium alginate nanoparticles are observed to have the similar amounts of protein immobilized in them. 3.4.2 UV-visible spectra for d-block element-based alginate nanoparticles The overlay of alginate nanoparticles developed from d-block elements is shown in figure 26. Figure 26: UV-visible spectra overlay for A) Na-alginate B) Co-based alginate nanoparticles C) Cu-based alginate nanoparticles D) Fe (II)-based alginate nanoparticles E) Fe (III)-based alginate nanoparticles F) Mn-based alginate nanoparticles G) Ni-based alginate nanoparticles and H) Zn-based alginate nanoparticles with no enzyme encapsulation. Figure 27 (a): UV-visible spectra for A) Na-alginate B) Co-based alginate nanoparticles C) Cu-based alginate nanoparticles D) Fe (II)-based alginate nanoparticles Figure 27 (b): UV-visible spectra for E) Fe (III)-based alginate nanoparticles F) Mn-based alginate nanoparticles G) Ni-based alginate nanoparticles and H) Zn-based alginate nanoparticles with no enzyme encapsulation.

ESP Abilities :: essays research papers

Ability and talent A person's psychic, ESP, or telepathic abilities can't be judged by a single or a group of exercises. This ability develops through time and practice. So, if you don't do well the first time, don't feel bad, the exercises need to be practiced over and over. Be patient and you can expect to see an improvement in all your latent abilities over a period of time, not just in a few tries of guessing cards. Attitude The mind set and attitude at the time of the test are critical. It is important to maintain enthusiasm and interest when testing yourself because it has been found to make a difference. When a person begins to get bored, their score often times goes down. Meditation This helps to train your mind to focus. It’s very helpful to meditate before you start ESP exercises. The object of the process is two-fold; to relax the body and to subdue the thoughts that continuously traverse our mind. One never stops the mind completely, but one can achieve states of relatively long periods where the mind is silent. It is during these moments, no matter how brief they are, that we enter a state of the void, the null or nothingness. Start the counting from around 20 and imagine seeing the shape of each number as you count down. At one point you may disappear from the counting process and not be aware that you've done so. It’s OK, don't be concerned, its part of meditation. You can also say to yourself â€Å"deeper† and imagine your body drowning into deep state if counting requires too much effort. ESP Exercises 1. Using the ESP symbols, make your own card preferably 25, 5 for each symbol. Try to guess what the card is without looking. It’s always good idea to record your results to see if you’re making progress. If it helps, make the card distinct as possible and practice with fewer symbols until you feel comfortable. Also playing with different colors may help you differentiate better. 2. Get 3 cups and fill each cup with water, orange juice and milk. Either blindfold your eye or set up some kind of barrier where you can’t see the content of the cup, place hand directly over the cup and guess the content of each. Focus and try to feel the energy each liquid is exerting.

The Illuminated Chapel :: Observation Essays, Descriptive Essays

When there is no sleep for the restless and the night hours become rivers of boredom that I begin to drown in, I feel my roommate stir with the same disease of unrest and we slowly put our shoes on. Already talking, we begin to drive for about two or three minutes toward a light in the dark hills. What we see has always drawn us, especially during the late hours. It’s the Milligan chapel that we see high on a hill thrust toward the heavens, beguiling us toward its soft glow. Turning up the winding campus, we finally stop at the parking center in front of this tall structure and start to walk toward its granite steps. I look up at the building, tilting my neck toward the steep spire christened with a metal cross at the very top. A sense of awe and respect surround me as I look on captivated for an instant, unsure whether the size or the skill put into its creation that makes me feel the way I do. On this hill my roommate and I spend many hours gazing and talking about our problems. With a cigarette in hand we lay our jackets down behind our head on the sidewalk in front the chapel and stare into space to see what we can see. Sometimes in a conversation we both stop midway through because we see a shooting star light up the damp night air, if only for a second. The shooting star looks like a bright line drawn by some invisible hand in the sky. We think since we are in front of the chapel speaking of everything and anything, maybe that is God’s way of saying to switch to another conversational subject. So we do. Sooner or later, however, we sit up and stare at the illuminated church thinking of unanswerable questions. Sitting there I can see every little detail on the steeple. At first I pay no attention to the structure around the bells in the steeple, but later I notice that those are actually hand carved designs. These designs are remarkable when on later inspection I notice the intricacies of the carvings that wrap and merge with each other under the bells. The bells are gleaming with rays of illumination set of by the interior lights of the church letting me see a vast display of colors that glint off the bell’s smooth surface.

Illinois Michigan Canal is Responsible for Chicagos Size Essay

"Didn't expect no town" -Early Chicago Settler Mark Beaubien The I & M Canal is universally considered the driving force behind the huge surge of growth that turned the tiny settlement on the banks of Lake Michigan named Chicago, in to a huge metropolis and bustling center of trade. Ever since Joliet first crossed the portage between the Chicago River and the Des Plaines River in 1673, explorers, investors, politicians, and farmers alike all agreed that constructing a canal across the continental divide could benefit them greatly. The canal would connect the two largest water systems in the United States, creating a continuous waterway between New York and New Orleans, but more importantly, place Chicago on perhaps the most valuable piece of real estate in North America and in the position to become an international city almost overnight. The plans to build the Illinois & Michigan canal began in the newly started Illinois legislature in 1818. It was driven forward by the new construction on the Erie Canal in New York. Once the Erie Canal was complete only a canal between the Des Plaines and Chicago rivers would be necessary to complete the chain of waterways connecting New York to New Orleans. In 1822, Congress gave Illinois a large portion of land on which to not only build the canal, but to sell to raise funds for its construction. The land contained the portage between the two rivers and about 100 miles of land to the south and west of it. It had just recently been coercively and dishonestly purchased from the local Blackhawk Indians in a treaty that ended the Blackhawk War. As soon as the Erie Canal was completed in 1825, eastern investors quickly realized Chicago's huge potential. The land around what would one ... ...ys to twelve days. The canal remained a profitable enterprise until the year 1866 when the newly completed railroad system proved to be a cheaper and more efficient alternative. Use of the canal did not disappear however until around 1900 when it began to fall into disrepair. The final deathblow to the Illinois & Michigan came when the big, wider, and deeper Illinois Waterway was completed in 1933. However, though no longer in commercial use, the Illinois & Michigan canal remains as a source of recreation and will forever be remembered as the spark responsible for Chicago's leap to prominence. In 1833 the population of the newly incorporated town of Chicago was 250 people, by 1854, only 20 years later, the population had swelled to over 75 thousand. The city of Chicago had ascended from a tiny trading outpost to a thriving metropolis at an unprecedented speed.

Examining the Use of Social Media and Its Impact on Corporate

Title Examining the Use of Social Media and Its Impact on Corporate Commerce Assessment A, Part One – Evaluating the Pros and Cons of Different Social Media Sites Identify the pros and cons for each site. Blogger Con: Security – possible transmission of untrustworthy links Blogger Con: Too much information – public disclosure Blogger Con: Ability to post relevant, up-to-the-minute news and updates Blogger Pro: Ability to create a community Blogger Pro: Ability to incorporate elements of other social media sitesBlogger Pro: Mass customization – widespread use among target audience Blogger Pro: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographics Digg Con: Not relevant to the niche audience Digg Con: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographics Digg Con: Mass customization – widespread use among target audience Digg Con: Instant communication to large groups Digg Pro: Media convergence – showing text, screen shots, vid eos Facebook Con: Limited visual presentation of productFacebook Con: Ability to filter comments via an approval mechanism Facebook Con: Security – possible transmission of untrustworthy links Facebook Pro: Ability to create a community Facebook Pro: Ability to incorporate elements of other social media sites Facebook Pro: Mass customization – widespread use among target audience Facebook Pro: Instant communication to large groups Facebook Pro: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographics Facebook Pro: Mobility – viewing on a cell photo adds to the audienceFacebook Pro: Ability to post relevant, up-to-the-minute news and updates Facebook Pro: Media convergence – showing text, screen shots, videos Flickr Con: Limited access from target audience Flickr Con: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographics Flickr Con: Mass customization – widespread use among target audience Flickr Pro: Not a good way to build buzz in the beginning Flickr Pro: Limited visual presentation of product Metacafe Con: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographicsMetacafe Con: Instant communication to large groups Metacafe Con: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographics Metacafe Pro: Media convergence – showing text, screen shots, videos Twitter Con: Ability to filter comments via an approval mechanism Twitter Con: Character Limits Twitter Con: Limited visual presentation of product Twitter Con: Security – possible transmission of untrustworthy links Twitter Con: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographics Twitter Pro: Instant communication to large groupsTwitter Pro: Mobility – viewing on a cell photo adds to the audience Twitter Pro: Ability to post relevant, up-to-the-minute news and updates Twitter Pro: Ability to receive instant feedback from product demographics YouTube Con: Ability to filter comments via an approval mechanism YouTube Con: Secu rity – possible transmission of untrustworthy links YouTube Pro: Ability to incorporate elements of other social media sites YouTube Pro: Mass customization – widespread use among target audience YouTube Pro: Media convergence – showing text, screen shots, videosAssessment A, Part Two – Examining the Use of Social Media and its Impact on Corporate Commerce Recommend which social media site Master Dynasty should be launched on. Blog, Twitter, and Facebook. Assessment B – Examining the Use of Social Media and its Impact on Corporate Commerce How can social media sites help us build our brand? Centralizing social site, and create links to our other sites will build up our brand. How can we best reach our target audience? Gather our quality followers instead of quantity, we can choose our niche in our target audience based on profiles.How can it help our corporate commerce to show our audience that we're human beings? Show audience we are not just here to sell, but are gamers to. How does social media help give people a reason to buy from us? Targeting relevant customers and marketing our brand turns selling into participating online community. How can we use customer comments to improve our corporate commerce? By helping, us keep our customers happier by responding to their individual needs after receiving instant feedbacks of comments and posts. Â © 2011 Toolwire, Inc. All rights reserved.

It Report on Networking

CHAPTER ONE 1. 0INTRODUCTION 1. 1BACKGROUND SIWES was established by ITF in 1973 to solve the problem of lack of adequate practical skills preparatory for employment in industries by Nigerian graduates of tertiary institutions. The Scheme exposes students to industry based skills necessary for a smooth transition from the classroom to the world of work. It affords students of tertiary institutions the opportunity of being familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling machinery and equipment which are usually not available in the educational institutions.Participation in Industrial Training is a well-known educational strategy. Classroom studies are integrated with learning through hands-on work experiences in a field related to the student’s academic major and career goals. Successful internships foster an experiential learning process that not only promotes career preparation but provides opportunities for learners to develop skills necessary to become leaders in their chosen professions. One of the primary goals of the SIWES is to help students integrate leadership development into the experiential learning process.Students are expected to learn and develop basic non-profit leadership skills through a mentoring relationship with innovative non-profit leaders. By integrating leadership development activities into the Industrial Training experience, we hope to encourage students to actively engage in non-profit management as a professional career objective. However, the effectiveness of the SIWES experience will have varying outcomes based upon the individual student, the work assignment, and the supervisor/mentor requirements.It is vital that each internship position description includes specific, written learning objectives to ensure leadership skill development is incorporated. Participation in SIWES has become a necessary pre-condition for the award of Diploma and Degree certificates in specific disciplines in most institutions of hig her learning in the country, in accordance with the education policy of government. Operators-The ITF, the coordinating agencies (NUC, NCCE, NBTE), employers of labor and the institutions. Funding-The Federal Government of Nigeria Beneficiaries- Undergraduate students of the following:Agriculture, Engineering, Technology, Environmental, Science, Education, Medical Science and Pure and Applied Sciences. Duration -Four months for Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, and Six months for the Universities. 1. 2 OBJECTIVES 1. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their interest in a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 2. SIWES students will develop skills in the application of theory to practical work situations. 3. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to test their aptitude for a particular career before permanent commitments are made. 4.SIWES students will develop skills and techniques directly applicable to their careers. 5. SIWES will aid st udents in adjusting from college to full-time employment. 6. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to develop attitudes conducive to effective interpersonal relationships. 7. SIWES will increase a student's sense of responsibility. 8. SIWES students will be prepared to enter into full-time employment in their area of specialization upon graduation. 9. SIWES students will acquire good work habits. 10. SIWES students will develop employment records/references that will enhance employment opportunities. 1. SIWES will provide students with an in-depth knowledge of the formal functional activities of a participating organization. 12. SIWES will provide students the opportunity to understand informal organizational interrelationships. 13. SIWES students will have higher levels of academic performances. 14. SIWES will increase student earning potential upon graduation. 15. SIWES Students will be able to outline at least five specific goals with several staff members by comparing perf ormance with job duties and develop a draft plan with staff to accomplish performance needs, supervision plan and rewards. . 3BRIEF HISTORY OF THE ESTABLISHMENT OF ATTACHMENT The Information communication Department in the Governor’s office was first established in 2003 as a unit by the then Governor of the State, Governor Donald Duke. In 2007 it became a Department with Nine Units namely, 1. Training unit 2. Maintenance unit 3. Networking unit 4. Information system application 5. Audit unit 6. Account unit 7. PRS unit 8. Administration 9. Support unit 1. 4BRIEF DUTIES OF EACH UNITTRAINING UNIT- this unit does the training of students in Computer literacy and also runs a certificate program in CCNA and project management, comptia A+ MAINTENANCE UNIT- This Unit is in charge of maintenance of all computer systems in the department NETWORKING UNIT- This unit is in charge of Network administration in the department and in all the MDAs and the Governor’s office, this unit t akes care of the states network affairs INFORMATION SYSTEM APPLICATION UNIT- This unit is in charge of the database of the establishment Support unit- this unit is in or supports the network unit in network administration.GOALS Vision to be a leading ICT driven state in the country Mission to create an information rich, knowledge driven society RESPONSIBILITIES Is to make sure that we meet our client requirement and need in the various MDA and give them better service delivery CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEWIn the course of my training with the ICT Department in Governor’s Office I was privileged to work with the support Unit which is in charge of administration of the Cross River State Network the Cross River State Network this works with the Database Center at the Governor’s Office where the Network Operating Centre(NOC) is Located This Units is in charge of the network and makes sure that all Ministries Departments Agencies are Connected to the network at all tim es, in case of Network breach the units does troubleshooting to rectify the problems as fast as possible. . 1NETWORK DOMAIN AND ADMINISTRATION. (SUMMARY ON THE CROSS RIVER STATE NETWORK) Cross River State Network uses a domain to organize the network environment. Domains are groups of PCs on the same network and are a method to isolate communications between the members in the domain and the other data traffic. Anyone in a domain can communicate with each other and out bound, however PCs not defined in the domain cannot communicate with those in the domain.Basically the network starts from when the satellite in space sends radio signals down to the satellite dish receiver (ku-band, ka-band, c-band e. t. c). This satellite dish receiver is connected to the private port of the internet modem then the public port of the modem is connected to the ISA server which acts as the gateway to internet access. The ISA server is connected to a domain controller which controls the domain environm ent by granting anyone who has a registered account on the domain access to the internet recourse.I. e. anyone who does not have an account or valid log on credentials cannot use the internet. Domain controller can also be used to control the network environment by restricting the rights to chance setting on the workstation so that only administrative rights can alter settings. The ISA server is also connected to an antivirus server which monitors the automatic updates and downloading of update for all workstation in the domain with a specific antivirus used for the network installed on them.The ISA server is also connected to a 24 port switch which is connected to the different switch cabinet in each directorate of office buildings (since it is a 24 port switch it take a maximum of 23 directorates, another switch can be connected to the first switch in case of more buildings). Ever building has a cabinet where LAN (local area network) connections are distributed to different office s. The cabinet comprises of switches and patch panels. The patch panel is a device that is used as a repeater so that signals don’t get loss over a long cable.One of the cables that comes from the main 24 port switch goes to the patch panel then a RJ-45 cable is connected from the patch panel to the switch (mostly a 24-port switch) in the cabinet (in case of two switches we have two patch panels. ). The patch panel then distributes the connection in the office or to other offices in the building as LAN port where workstations can be connected to by the use of RJ-45 cable (workstations can also be connected directly to the switch). As for wireless connection, a wireless router or access point is placed at every passage way in each building.The wireless access point is either connected to one of the switches in the cabinet or the main 24-port switch. 2. 2 ISA SERVER/PROXY SERVER/GATEWAY The ISA server also acts as a proxy server/gateway. A proxy server is a server that acts as an intermediary between a workstation user and the Internet so that the enterprise can ensure security, administrative control, and caching service. A proxy server is associated with or part of a gateway server that separates the enterprise network from the outside network and a firewall server that protects the enterprise network from outside intrusion.An advantage of a proxy server is that its cache can serve all users. If one or more Internet sites are frequently requested, these are likely to be in the proxy's cache, which will improve user response time. A proxy can also do logging. A user on a workstation which is connected to the domain can only view the internet if the address and port number of the ISA server is set in the proxy address and port settings. 2. 3 HOW TO SET THE PROXY SETTINGS: †¢STEP 1: Click tools then click internet options on the browser. STEP 2: Click on the connection tab and then click LAN settings. †¢STEP 3: Type in the ISA server ip-address ( e. g. 192. 168. 2. 1) in the address box and also insert the port number (e. g. 3128). 2. 4 HOW TO JOIN A WORKSTATION TO A DOMAIN STEP 1: right-click on my-computer then clicks properties. STEP 2: click on system properties. STEP 3: Click on computer name tab, click change. STEP 4: Type in the computer name (e. g. pro 10), then click the domain radio button and type in the domain name (e. g. dpetri. net), then click ok.STEP 5: After clicking OK you would prompt with a username and password dialog box where only those with administrative credentials would be able to logon. Type in the user name and password, and then click OK. STEP 5: After clicking OK, you would be prompted with a dialog box welcoming you to the domain. Then restart the system. 2. 5 ANTIVIRUS SERVER The antivirus server is a separate system that is connected to the ISA server. It is used to protect the network from harmful treats like spyware (i. e. worm, virus, adware e. t. c. ).The antivirus server makes use of wi ndows server 2003 operating system, with a network antivirus (e. g. e-trust) installed on it. For any workstation on the network to be protected by the network antivirus server a copy of the network antivirus must be installed on them. To make the antivirus copy work with the antivirus server the proxy settings must be set using the antivirus server Ip-address (e. g. 192. 168. 2. 4) as the address in the proxy settings. 2. 6 MAIN SWITCH The main switch is a switch that is used to distribute the network connection to different buildings.A switch is a device that is used to link systems or workstations together. A switch is mainly used in a star topology. Properties of a switch: †¢Collision: this is the jamming of signal in a transmission medium. †¢Collision domain: this is the environment in which collision occurs. †¢ Broadcast: this is the sending of signal from a system to the rest of the system connected to the switch. A broadcast is usually sent across all the coll ision domains as one virtual domain. †¢Broadcast domain: this is the environment in which a broadcast is sent across. Multicast: this is the sending of signal from one system to a selected group of systems connected to the switch. †¢Unicast: this is a signal that is sent from one system to another. 2. 7PATCH PANEL A patch panel is a panel of network ports contained together, usually within a telecommunications closet that connects incoming and outgoing lines of a LAN or other communication, electronic or electrical system. In a LAN, the patch panel connects the network's computers to each other and to the outside lines that enable the LAN to connect to the Internet or another WAN.Connections are made with patch cords. The patch panel allows circuits to be arranged and rearranged by plugging and unplugging the patch cords. The use of a patch panel is necessary because is help to repeat signals travelled over a cable from a long distance to prevent data loss. A patch panel i s connected to a switch respectively according to the number on each port of both the switch and patch panel. 2. 8 ROUTER/VPN A router is a device or a computer that is used to connect two or more networks together. Routers are physical devices that join multiple wired or wireless networks together.Technically, a wired or wireless router is a Layer 3 gateway, meaning that the wired/wireless router connects networks (as gateways do), and that the router operates at the network layer of the OSI model. A router can also be called a computer because it has a LAN-port, an operating system (OS) and memory. A router has an operating system and a user interface (depending on the brand of the router). The user interface can be viewed by connecting the router via LAN-cable to a computer. 2. 8 STEPS TO VIEW THE USER INTERFACE OF A ROUTER: Know the default IP-address of the router (usually 192. 168. 0. 1). †¢Connect the router to a computer. †¢Open a browser. †¢Click on the file tab. †¢Click on open then a dialog box appears. †¢ Type in the IP-address of the router in the text box and click OK, then a logon dialog box appears. The default username and password are both admin and admin. †¢ Type in the username and password then click OK. In the user interface you can change the Ip-address to suit your company setting, change the security protocol (i. e. either WAP, WAP2, WEB e. t. c), router name e. t. VPN: A VPN (virtual private network) is a device that uses a series of encryption and algorithms to secure the data transmitted over the public internet. It allows users to work on their company network from their home with a higher level of confidence that no one else can access their work i. e. it provides a level of encryption so that an outsider would not be able to hack in to the network. VPN eliminates distance between two computers and establish a secured connection with two computers. A VPN can also act as a router in the sense that it c an be used for connecting two or more networks together.CHAPTER THREE 3. 1HARDWARE AND MAINTAINNACE During the course of training I was also fortunate to receive lectures and training on comptia A+ that is hardware and maintenance which covered Knowledge on system maintenance as a whole approaches on how to prevent system damage. A computer system basically contains the following components/devices: System case, Mother board, Processor, Memory, Graphics card, Sound card, Modem, NIC Card, Hard disk CD-ROM/DVD-ROM Monitor. SYSTEM CASE: A system case is required to hold all your components together. It houses all the internal component of a system.The system cases come in two form factors which are AT and ATX. Nearly all the cases made nowadays are ATX as the motherboard manufacturers make majority of their motherboard in the ATX form. MOTHERBOARD: A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in a computer that holds many of the crucial components of the system, while provi ding connectors for other peripherals. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the main board, system board. PROCESSOR: The processor (CPU, for Central Processing Unit) is the computer's brain.It allows the processing of numeric data, information entered in binary form, and the execution of instructions stored in memory. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for interpreting and executing most of the commands from the computer's hardware and software. It is often called the â€Å"brains† of the computer. MEMORY: A memory is the name given to a silicon chips that stores volatile computer data. The word Volatile means that the contents of memory will be lost if the power of the computer switched off. Memory stores some of your operating system and application data while it is being run.The more memory you have in your computer the higher the amount of application you can run simultaneously, and will provide an overall better system performance. Memory com es in different forms. The older system uses SDRAM, while Fig 3. 1 A typical system board The current system uses DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random Access Memory). Fig 3. 2 3. 2. SYSTEM BOARD COMPONENTS Now that you understand the basic types of motherboards and their form factors, it’s time to look at the components found on the motherboard and their locations relative to each other Figure 3. illustrates many of the following components found on a typical motherboard: * Chipsets * Expansion slots * Memory slots and external cache * CPU and processor slots or sockets * Power connectors * Onboard disk drive connectors * Keyboard connectors * Peripheral port and connectors * BIOS chip * CMOS battery * Jumpers and DIP switches * Firmware CHIPSETS A chipset is usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors. Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the chipset plays a crucial role in determining system performance.The manufacturer of a chipset often is independent from the manufacturer of the motherboard. Current manufacturers of chipsets for PC-compatible motherboards include NVIDIA, AMD, VIA Technologies, Intel and Broadcom. There can only be two (2) chipsets in a computer namely Northbridge and Southbridge. NORTHBRIDGE The Northbridge links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially main memory and graphics controller’s . The communications between the CPU and memory occur over what is known as the front side bus (FSB), which is just a set of signal pathways between the CPU and main memory.The Northbridge chipsets also manage the communications between the Southbridge Chipset and the rest of the computer SOUTHBRIDGE Southbridge connects to lower-speed peripheral buses (such as PCI or ISA). In many modern chipsets, the Southbridge actually contains some on-chip integrated peripherals, such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices. A typical motherboard chipset for Pentium architecture. EXPANSION SLOTS The most visible parts of any motherboard are the expansion slots. These look like small plastic slots, usually from 3 to 11 inches long and approximately 1? 2 inch wide.As their name suggests, these slots are used to install various devices in the computer to expand its capabilities. Some expansion devices that might be installed in these slots include video, network, sound, and disk interface cards. If you look at the motherboard in your computer, you will more than likely see one of the Main types of expansion slots used in computers today: * ISA * PCI * AGP * PCIe Each type differs in appearance and function. In this section, we will cover how to visually identify the different expansion slots on the motherboard. ISA Expansion SlotsISA bus first appeared in PC based on 80286 CPU. The idea was to put a standard in interfacing with peripheral devices. In our days this bus is kept for compatibility with â€Å"legacy† peripheral devices such as B IOS ROM, Parallel and Serial Ports, Sound and Modem devices. These devices have historical fixed address range (no Plug and Play option) and aren't hurt by low speed of ISA bus (8/16 bit data bus with 8 MHz clock speed). Most modern PCs don't even have extra ISA slots since most peripheral components moved to PCI and USB. ISA bus requires 4 bus cycles for each data transfer. Fig 3. EXPANSION CARD AND SLOT PCI Expansion Slots PCI bus was developed by Intel for high performance peripheral devices, such as graphic accelerators, disk controllers, data acquisition boards. PCI was supposed to overcome limitations of existing ISA bus. 16 bit ISA bus with clock speed of 10 MHz with theoretical bus throughput 2M transfers/sec but practically not more than 500k. PCI bus is much faster: in burst mode PCI can transfer 32 or 64 bit data with 33 MHz or 64 MHz clock, that yields transfer rates from 132 MB/sec to 538 MB/sec, PCI supports huge address range: 32/64 bit address bus instead of 16 bit I SA.It is a burst oriented bus designed for large transfers; hidden bus arbitration among multiple musters is provided on each bus. In theory up to 32 logical devices can reside on PCI bus. But practically, a PCI bus is more likely to have maximum 10 devices because of its low-powered, reflected wave-switching. If more devices is desired PCI to PCI bridge is used. PCI devices are automatically configured in software (Plug and Play option). This eliminates earlier problems with ISA configuration using fixed addresses or user configured switches and jumpers.In recent years some peripheral devices have gotten faster and PCI became too slow for CD and hard disks. Then new interfaces appeared: IDE, SCSI. Fig 3. 4 PCI expansion slot AGP EXPANSION SLOTS AGP port When 3D graphics applications became common, graphic devices were still found on the PCI bus. AGP port provides high speed access to the memory and allows sharing it with local video memory. AGP is not a bus (no competition between devices sitting on the same bus), but port with a dedicated connection between North bridge and graphic accelerator.Speed is 264 MB/s – 1 GB/s Fig 3. 4 An AGP slot PCI EXPANSION SLOTS The newest expansion slot architecture that is being used by motherboards is PCI Express (PCI). It was designed to be a replacement for AGP and PCI. It has the capability of being faster than AGP while maintaining the flexibility of PCI. And motherboards with PCI will have regular PCI slots for backward compatibility with PCI. The diagram below illustrates Pentium IV system. You can see that ISA bus is gone and a new interface introduced: PCI Express. LPC is a subset of PCI (low pin count).PCI Express provides advanced features such as better power management, performance and bandwidth increases, enables support for streaming media, TV tuners, cameras, graphics. POWER CONNECTORS In addition to these sockets and slots on the motherboard, a special connector (shown in allows the motherboard to be connected to the power supply to receive power. This connector is where the ATX power connector plugs in. Fig 3. 5 An ATX power connector Central Processing Unit (CPU) and Processor Socket or Slot The â€Å"brain† of any computer is the central processing unit (CPU).This component does all the calculations and performs 90 percent of all the functions of a computer. There are many different types of processors for computers—so many, typically, in today’s computers, the processor is the easiest component to identify on the motherboard. It is usually the component that has either a fan or a heat sink (usually both) attached to it. These devices are used to draw away the heat a processor generates. This is done because heat is the enemy of microelectronics. Theoretically, a Pentium (or higher) processor generates enough heat that without the heat sink it would self-destruct in a matter of hours.Sockets and slots on the motherboard are as plentiful and varied as proc essors. Sockets are basically flat and have several rows of holes arranged in a square, as shown in Figure 1. 10. The processor slot is another method of connecting a processor to a motherboard, but one into which an Intel Pentium II or Pentium III–class processor on a special expansion card can be inserted. Fig 3. 6 Processors with a fan and heat sinks Fig 3. 7An example of a CPU socket Modern processors can feature the following: OVER CLOCKING: Over clocking your CPU offers increased performance, on a processor designed to operate at the over clocked speed.However, unlike with the processor designed to run that fast, you must make special arrangements to ensure that an over clocked CPU does not destroy itself from the increased heat levels. An advanced cooling mechanism, such as liquid cooling, might be necessary to avoid losing the processor and other components. 3. 3 COMPUTER MEMORY Computer RAM is the best known form of memory your computer uses. Every file or applicatio n opened is placed in RAM. Any information the computer needs or uses becomes part of a continuous cycle where the CPU requests data from RAM, processes it and then writes new data back to RAM.This can happen millions of times a second. However, this is usually just for temporary file storage, so unless the data is saved somewhere, it is deleted when the files or applications are closed 3. 4 HARD DISK DRIVE A hard disk drive (HDD), commonly referred to as a hard drive or hard disk, is a non-volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, â€Å"drive† refers to a device distinct from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its floppy disk.Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically a sealed unit with fixed media. Figure 3. 8 showing a Hard disk and its components. A hard disk drive stores information on one or more rigid, flat, disks. The disks are mounted on a spindle, with spacers in between, and a motor on the bottom end of the spindle. To read and write to the surface of the disks, the drive uses a small electro-magnet assembly, referred to as a head, located on the end of an actuator arm. There is one head for each platter surface on the spindle. The disks are spun at a very high speed to allow the head to move quickly over the surface of the disk.Towards the other end of the actuator arm is a pivot point, and at the end is a voice coil, which moves the head. Above and below each voice coil is a rare earth magnet. This allows the head to move towards the center of the disk or towards the outside, in a radial pattern. Fig 3. 9 Describing inside the HDD 3. 5 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF THE HARD DISK DRIVE The preventive measures are used to improve the performance of the hard disk. The primary tools or utilities available are: Scandisk: This utility can be used to scan surface for media errors, scan files and folde rs for data problem.Scan disk is run each time window is not properly shot down. You should run scan disk at least weekly to find and repair small error on disk before they become major problem. Disk Defragmentation: This utility is use to rearrange your disk files, combined and organized unused disk space so that application run faster. As we modify or delete file on hard disk, file become fragmented. The defragmenter eliminates fragmentation so that data in the file are readily available to program asking for it. Disk Cleanup/delete Unused File: This utility remove unnecessary file from your hard disk.This tool scan the disk you designate to fine files that can be removed without affecting the operation of the PC and the Window operating system. Backup: Backing up hard disk data to another storage media that can be stored outside the PC is also a preventive maintenance. This usually prevent hard disk against failure, PC problem hardware can be replaced but most often data cannot b e recovered, so making a backup copy of your file is a safety precaution that ensure that your data can be outlive on the device on which it is stored.Empty Recycle Bin: The recycle bin should always be emptied at least monthly in order to remove all deleted data, file, programs that are no longer needed. 3. 6 FLOPPY DISK DRIVES Floppy disks, also known as floppies or diskettes (where the suffix -ette means little one) were ubiquitous in the 1980s and 1990s, being used on home and personal computer (â€Å"PC†) platforms such as the Apple II, Macintosh, Commodore 64, Atari ST, Amiga, and IBM PC to distribute software, transfer data between computers, and create small backups.Before the popularization of the hard drive for PCs, floppy disks were typically used to store a computer's operating system (OS), application software, and other data. Many home computers had their primary OS kernels stored permanently in on-board ROM chips, but stored the disk operating system on a flopp y, whether it be a proprietary system, CP/M, or, later, DOS. Since the floppy drive was the primary means of storing programs, it was typically designated as the ‘A:' drive. The second floppy drive was the ‘B:' drive.And those with the luxury of a hard drive were designated the ‘C:' drive, a convention that remains with us today long after the decline of the floppy disk's utility. Fig 3. 10 CD-ROM DRIVES Figure3. 10 showing Old 4x CD-ROM DRIVE CD-ROM discs are read using CD-ROM drives, which are now almost universal on personal computers. A CD-ROM drive may be connected to the computer via an IDE (ATA), SCSI, SATA, Fire wire, or USB interface or a proprietary interface, such as the Panasonic CD interface.Virtually all modern CD-ROM drives can also play audio CDs as well as Video CDs and other data standards when used in conjunction with the right software. 3. 7 INSTALLING THE HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM Things to get in place before starting: Set of sc rewdrivers and pliers, Piece of cloth, CPU Thermal compound (recommended), PC components. Make sure you have all the components in place and a nice, clean and big enough place to work with. Fig 3. 11 All PC components accept the case Tip: CPU Thermal compound is not a necessity but it is recommended to keep your CPU cool under load conditions by helping heat dissipate faster.It is a must if you intend to over clock your PC. Installing the motherboard Fig 3. 12. Open the side doors of the cabinet Lay the cabinet on its side Put the motherboard in place Drive in all the required screws Most motherboards come with an antistatic bag. It is advisable to put the motherboard on it for some time and then remove it from the antistatic bag before placing it in the cabinet. Fig 3. 13 Step 1 Installing the CPU CPU is the heart of a computer so make sure you handle it properly and do not drop it or mishandle it. Steps 1 * Lift the CPU lever on the motherboard Place the CPU properly on the mother board * Pull down the lever to secure the CPU in place Warning: Do not try to push the CPU into the motherboard! Step 2 Got the thermal compound? Now is the time to use it. Take small amount of it and carefully apply it on the top surface of the processor. Be careful not to put it on the neighboring parts of the motherboard. If you do so clean it immediately using the cloth. Tip: Thermal compounds should be changed once every six months for optimal performance. Step 3 installing the heat sink Fig 3. 15 After installing the processor we proceed to installing the heat sink.There are different kinds of heat sinks that are bundled with the processor and each has a different way of installation. Look into your CPU manual for instructions on how to install it properly. Place the heat sink on the processor Put the jacks in place Secure the heat sink with the lever After this you will need to connect the cable of the heat sink on the motherboard. Again look into the motherboard manual on wh ere to connect it and then connect it to the right port to get your heat sink in operational mode. Installing the RAM Fig 3. 16 Installing the RAM is also an easy job.The newer RAMs that is DDR RAMs are easy to install as you don’t have to worry about placing which side where into the slot. The older ones, SDRAMs are plagued by this problem. Push down the RAM into the slot Make sure the both the clips hold the RAM properly Installing the power supply Fig 3. 17 Installing the power supply as the components we install after this will require power cables to be connected to them. There is not much to be done to install a PSU. Place the PSU into the cabinet Put the screws in place tightly Tip: Some PSU have extra accessories that come bundled with it. Consult your PSU manual to see how to install them.Step 6: Installing the video card Fig 3. 18 First you will need to find out whether your video card is AGP or PCI-E. AGP graphics cards have become redundant and are being phased ou t of the market quickly. So if you bought a spanking new card it will certainly be a PCI-E. * Remove the back plate on the cabinet corresponding to the graphics card * Push the card into the slot * Secure the card with a screw * Plug in the power connection from PSU (if required) High-end graphics cards need dedicated power supply and if your graphics card needs one then connect the appropriate wire from PSU into the graphics card.Step 7: Installing the hard disk Fig 3. 19 Hard disk is another fragile component of the computer and needs to be handled carefully. Place the hard drive into the bay Secure the drive with screws If the jumpers or switches are set for the only hard drive or master role, move on. If the jumpers or switches are not configured correctly, move them to the correct position with your needle-nose pliers or your tweezers. Connect the power cable from PSU Connect the data cable from motherboard into the drive If your hard drive is a SATA one then connect one end of SATA cable into the motherboard and other into the SATA port on the hard disk.If your hard disk is PATA type then use the IDE cable instead of the SATA cable. Tip: If your PSU does not support SATA power supply then you will need to get a converter which will convert your standard IDE power connector to a SATA power connector. Fig 3. 20 Testing the Hard disk installation Verify that a monitor, keyboard, and mouse are connected to the PC. Make sure the power cord is connected and that the computer is receiving power. Power up the unit and watch the boot. Step 9: Connecting various cables Fig 3. 21 First we will finish setting up internal components and then get on to the external ones.You will need to consult your motherboard manual for finding the appropriate port for connecting various cables at the right places on the motherboard. Connect the large ATX power connector to the power supply port on your motherboard. Next get hold of the smaller square power connector which supplies power to the processor and connect it to the appropriate port by taking help from your motherboard manual. Connect the cabinet cables for power, reset button in the appropriate port of the motherboard. Connect the front USB/audio panel cable in the motherboard Plug the cable of cabinet fansYou are done with installing the internal components of the PC. Close the side doors of the cabinet and get it upright and place it on your computer table. Get the rest of the PC components like monitor, keyboard, mouse, speakers etc. which we will connect now. Connect the VGA cable of the monitor into the VGA port If mouse/keyboard is PS/2 then connect them to PS/2 ports or else use the USB port Connect the speaker cable in the audio port Fig 3. 22 Plug in the power cable from PSU into the UPS Also plug in the power cable of the monitor You are now done with setting up your PC.Power on and see your PC boot to glory. Step 10: Installing Operating System Here are some useful steps enter your BIOS s ettings instruct the computer to boot from the CD –ROM, insert a bootable disk fold your arms and watch your PC boot to Glory. CHAPTER FOUR 4. 1 NETWORKING AND NETWORK CABLES Knowledge gained on Networking Network is a group of connected computers. This can be as small and simple as two (2) computers connected together or as large and complex as a multisite network that supports thousands of computers and printers and other device.Networking allows for increased communication (video conferencing, real-time chats, e-mailing etc), hardware and software resources sharing (printers, drives, data, files application etc) and Data back up and retrieval. Network models can be any of peer-to-peer or client/server model. Types of network include LAN (Local Area Network), WAN (Wide area network), MAN (Metropolitan Area Network), Virtual LAN, Virtual Private Network, (VPN). 4. 2 NETWORK DEVELOPMENT COMPONENTS Components used to develop a network can be classified broadly into 2 that is H ardware and software The Hardware components include * Computers Modems * Interfaces * Peripherals * Networking cards * Cabling – UTP, STP, Fiber Optics, coaxial * Interconnecting devices, e. g. repeaters routers, hubs, NIC, switches, bridges The software includes operating system (such as MS Dos, UNIX, protocols and other software tools supporting the data communication across the network. The number of components (software and hardware) depends on a number of factors like, type of Network to be used, number of workstation, hosts, PC terminals other peripheral devices to be connected to the Network, data volume, speed of transmission, application program and services required. . 3 MAIN TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES In networking, the term â€Å"topology† refers to the layout of connected devices on a network. This article introduces the standard topologies of computer networking. One can think of a topology as a network's virtual shape or structure. This shape does not necessarily correspond to the actual physical layout of the devices on the network. For example, the computers on a home LAN may be arranged in a circle in a family room, but it would be highly unlikely to find an actual ring topology there. Network topologies are categorized into the following basic types: * Star Topology Ring Topology * Bus Topology * Tree Topology * Mesh Topology * Hybrid Topology More complex networks can be built as hybrids of two or more of the above basic topologies. Star Topology: Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a â€Å"hub† that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet. Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails. ) See the illustration of Star Network Topology. Fig 4. 1 Advantages of a Star Topology * Easy to install and wire. * No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices. * Easy to detect faults and to remove parts. Disadvantages of A Star Topology * Requires more cable length than a linear topology. * If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. * More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators. The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or Local Talk.Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring. Star-Wired Ring: A star-wired ring topology may appear (externally) to be the same as a star topology. Internally, the MAU of a star-wired ring contains wiring that allows information to pass from one device to another in a circle or ring. The Token Ring protocol uses a star-wired ring topology. Ring Topology: In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communicatio n purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either â€Å"clockwise† or â€Å"counterclockwise†).A failure in any cable or device breaks the loop and can take down the entire network. To implement a ring network, one typically uses FDDI, SONET, or Token Ring technology. Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or school campuses. See the illustration of Ring Topology. Fig 4. 2 Bus Topology: Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into with an interface connector.A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and processes the message. Ethernet bus topologies are relatively easy to install and don't require much cabling compared to the alternatives. 10Base-2 (â€Å"Thin Net†) and 10Base-5 (â€Å"Thick Net†) both were popular Ethernet cabling options many years ago for bus topologies. However, bus networks work best with a limited number of devices. If more than a few dozen computers are added to a network bus, performance problems will likely result.In addition, if the backbone cable fails, the entire network effectively becomes unusable. See the illustration of Bus Network Topology. Fig 4. 3 Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. * Requires less cable length than a star topology. Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology * Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. * Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. * Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. * Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.Tree Topology: Tree topologies integrate multiple star to pologies together onto a bus. In its simplest form, only hub devices connect directly to the tree bus and each hub functions as the â€Å"root† of a tree of devices. This bus/star hybrid approach supports future expandability of the network much better than a bus (limited in the number of devices due to the broadcast traffic it generates) or a star (limited by the number of hub connection points) alone. See the illustration of Tree Network Topology. Fig 4. 4 Advantages of a Tree Topology Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.Supported by several hardware and software vendors. Disadvantages of a Tree Topology Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies. Mesh Topology: Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh network can take any of several possible paths fro m source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction. Some WANs, most notably the Internet, employ mesh routing. A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others. See the illustration of Mesh Network Topology. Fig 4. 5 Hybrid Topology A combination of any two or more network topologies. Note 1: Instances can occur where two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the basic network character, and therefore not be a hybrid network.For example, a tree network connected to a tree network is still a tree network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues only when two basic networks are connected and the resulting network topology fails to meet one of the basic topology definitions. For example, two star networks connected together exh ibit hybrid network topologies. Note 2: A hybrid topology always accrues when two different basic network topologies are connected. 4. 4 Network Adapters There are many different names for network adapters, including network cards, Network Interface Cards, NICs. These are all generic terms for the same piece of hardware.A network card’s job is to physically attach a computer to a network, so that the computer can participate in network communications. The first thing that you need to know about network cards is that the network card has to match the network medium. The network medium refers to the type of cabling that is being used on the network. Wireless networks are a science all their own, and I will talk about them in a separate article. At one time making sure that a network card matched the network medium was a really big deal, because there were a large number of competing standards in existence.For example, before you built a network and started buying network cards and cabling, you had to decide if you were going to use Ethernet, coaxal Ethernet, Token Ring, Arcnet, or one of the other networking standards of the time. Each networking technology had its strengths and weaknesses, and it was important to figure out which one was the most appropriate for your organization. Today, most of the networking technologies that I mentioned above are quickly becoming extinct. Pretty much the only type of wired network used by small and medium sized businesses is Ethernet. This is what an Ethernet card looks likeFig 4. 6 4. 5 UTP CABLE TYPES UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is a common copper-based medium for interconnecting network devices, such as computers, with intermediate devices, such as routers and network switches. Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring conventions. This means that the individual wires in the cable have to be connected in different orders to different sets of pins in the RJ-45 connectors. The following are main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions: * Ethernet Straight-through Ethernet Crossover * Rollover Using a crossover or straight-through cable incorrectly between devices may not damage the devices, but connectivity and communication between the devices will not take place. This is a common error in the lab and checking that the device connections are correct should be the first troubleshooting action if connectivity is not achieved. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling, as it is used in Ethernet LANs, consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath.The twisting has the effect of canceling unwanted signals. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, external electromagnetic fields create the same interference in each wire. The pairs are twisted to keep the wires in as close proximity as is physically possible. When th is common interference is present on the wires in a twisted pair, the receiver processes it in equal yet opposite ways. As a result, the signals caused by electromagnetic interference from external sources are effectively cancelled. 4. 6UTP CABLING STANDARDSThe UTP cabling commonly found in workplaces, schools, and homes conforms to the standards established jointly by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronics Industries Alliance (EIA). TIA/EIA-568A stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LAN installations and is the standard most commonly used in LAN cabling environments. Some of the elements defined are: * Cable types * Cable lengths * Connectors * Cable termination * Methods of testing cable There three (3) types of unshielded twisted pair Ethernet cables and they are: Ethernet Straight- throughEthernet Crossover Rollover The figure below shows the color combinations for producing these cables Fig 4. 7 CABLE TYPE| STANDARD| APPLICATION| Etherne t straight- through| Both end T568A or both end T568B| Connecting a network host to a network device such as a switch or hub. Connect a computer to a cable/DSL modem's LAN portConnect a router's WAN port to a cable/DSL modem's LAN port. Connect a router's LAN port to a switch/hub's uplink port. (normally used for expanding network)Connect two (2) switches/hubs with one of the switch/hub using an uplink port and the other one using normal port. Ethernet crossover| One end T568A, And the other end T568B. | Connecting two network hosts. Connecting network intermediary devices such as (switch- to- router) or (router-to-router)Connect 2 switches/hubs by using normal port in both switches/hubs. | Rollover| Cisco proprietary| Connect a workstation serial port to a router console port, using an adapter. | Making Ethernet UTP cables WHAT YOU NEED Fig 4. 8 Cable- Be sure the cable(s) you are using is properly rated for CAT 5. It should state clearly on the jacket of the cable, what it is rate d at.One option that you have when selecting your cable is to use a pre-made normal ‘straight through' cable, and simply whack off one of the ends, and replace with a new â€Å"Crossed Over† end. For the purpose of this report, though, we aren't going to go that route. We are going to make the whole thing from scratch – using bulk CAT 5 cable. Connectors – Crossover cables are terminated with CAT 5 RJ-45 (RJ stands for â€Å"Registered Jack†) modular plugs. RJ-45 plugs are similar to those you'll see on the end of your telephone cable except they have eight versus four contacts on the end of the plug.Also, make sure the ends you select are rated for CAT 5 wiring. There are also different types of jacks which are used for different types of cabling (such as Solid Core wire). Make sure you buy the correct jacks for your cabling. Crimper – You will need a modular crimping tool. Fig 4. 9 Stripper – There are several specialized tools, whic h can be used to strip the jackets off of cabling. If you do not have access to one of these tools, cautious use of a razor blade or knife should work just fine – but keep in mind if you go the razor blade / knife route, extra special care must be used as to not damage the wires inside the jacket.Cutters – You need a pair of cutters that will allow you to cut a group of cables in a straight line. It is very important that all the wires are the same lengths, and without proper cutters, this can be a difficult task. Fig 4. 10 LAN Tester – You need the LAN tester to test the cable after crimping to ensure the functionality of the cable. Connect the cable to the tester and see if all lights turn green. If all lights turn green, your cable is working properly. If they do not, cut the RJ-45 connector off and re-terminate the ends of the cable with a new one.Fig 4. 11 1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very caref ul at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render it useless. Check the wires, one more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over. Fig 4. 12 2)Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand. You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket.Category 5 cable must only have 1/2 of an inch of ‘untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be ‘out of specification' Fig4. 13 Up to this point, things have been pretty easy. Things will get a little bit tricky here, but don't worry; we'll get through this together. We are at a point in this report where a decision needs to be made. You need to decide which end of the cable you are making at this point in time. If you are making your cable from scratch like I am doing while writing this report, you have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable.If you are using a pre-made cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install – the crossed over end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each type of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the associated picture below. Fig4. 14 Begin to untwist the twisted exposed wires on your cable. Use caution so that you do not untwist them down inside the jacket. Once you have all the wires untwisted begin to arrange them in the proper order based on the pictures above.This stage can be a frustrating one, especially some of the middle wires. Once you get all the wired arranged in the proper order, make sure your wire cutters are within reach then grasp them right at the point where they enter the jacket. Make sure you keep them in the proper order! Grab your cutters now. Line them up along your prepared wires about 1/2 inches above the jacket. Be sure at this point that you are both 1/2 inches above the jacket, and that your cutters are aligned straight across the wires. You want to make a clean cut here – also make sure you don't let go of that jacket / wires!Fig4. 15 5. Grab those crimpers – because not all crimpers are exactly the same your pictures may not match exactly what you see below. Be sure to keep a good grip on that jack and the cable. Insert the jack into the crimper. It should only go in one way, so you don't have a whole lot to worry about inserting it. Begin to compress those crimpers. You will more than likely hear a clicking sound. Keep squeezing. If you try to let go too early, nothing will happen. They will not release. Keep going until they stop clicking / stop moving all together.At this point, you should be able to let go of the jack, and the crimpers. The crimpers should release now leaving you with a crimped jack. If the crimpers do not release, you probably didn’t press hard enough. Fig4. 16 6)I t's time to examine what we have done. If you look at the end of the jack you should see that the copper connectors should not be pressed down into the wires. Toward the back of the jack (where the jacket meets the jack) it should be crimped securely holding the jacket / cable in the jack. If something has gone wrong, don't worry, it’s not the end of the world.Grab those cutters, and just whack the whole jack off and start back at step 1 (a frustrating one I know, but it’s better to have a cable that works, than to spend hours trouble shooting your PC trying to figure out why you can't see the other machine). If everything is cool, all you have to do now is make the other end of the cable so go back to step one, and make the other end as I have explained in this report. Fig 4. 17 Good |   |   | Fig4. 18|   | WRONG WAY – Note how the blue plastic shielding is not inside the connector where it can be locked into place. |   |   |   | Fig4. 9|   | WRON G WAY – Note how the cables do not go all the way to the end of the connector. | 4. 7 CONNECTING TWO COMPUTERS USING CROSSOVER CABLES Fig 4. 20 Plug in network card each to computer and then install network card driver for each computer. Connect the cable to both computers’ network card. Here comes the network configuration, let’s create a simple network by assigning following network info to each computer's network card: Computer A: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 1 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers: Computer B: IP Address: 10. 1. 1. 2 Subnet mask: 255. 255. 255. 0 Gateway: DNS Servers:Since these 2 computers are directly connected, no gateway and DNS servers are needed. After assigning IP address, try to ping the other computer from command prompt, you should be able to ping each other and then sharing printers or files as you wish. 4. 8 USING PING TO TROUBLESHOOT NETWORK PROBLEM Sometimes if your network connection is down, you can use ping to troubles hoot network problem and then fix it. Ping is a program used to check whether a host is up and active in network. It’s very simple and usually used to troubleshoot network problem. Here is typical technique for pinging and it applies to wireless network as well. . First thing you need to do is to make sure there is light on network card with cable connected. Sometimes network down is due to disconnected network cable or loose cable connection. If you notice no light on your network card after connecting with network cable, make sure the network cable is working. If you see the light, then proceed to step 2. 2. Go to Start and click on Run. Type CMD, and hit Enter or click OK. Fig 4. 21 Type â€Å"ping† in the Command Window. Hit the space bar once. Type the IP or website address that you want to ping. For example, if you want to ping eBay, type â€Å"www. ebay. om† after the space. Hit â€Å"Enter. † If the website is up and actively responding, you recei ve replies back from the server that you pinged with the following information: The IP address The number of Bytes sent The time it took in milliseconds The TTL is Time to Live (This indicated the number of â€Å"hops† back from the computer pinged from that computers initial TTL value. ) Fig4. 22 4. 9HUBS AND SWITCHES As you can see, computers use network cards to send and receive data. The data is transmitted over Ethernet cables. However, you normally can’t just run an Ethernet cable between two PCs and call it a network.In this day and age of high speed Internet access being almost universally available, you tend to hear the term broadband thrown around a lot. Broadband is a type of network in which data is sent and received across the same wire. In contrast, Ethernet uses Baseband communications. Baseband uses separate wires for sending and receiving data. What this means is that if one PC is sending data across a particular wire within the Ethernet cable, then th e PC that is receiving the data needs to have the wire redirected to its receiving port. You can actually network two PCs together in this way.You can create what is known as a cross over cable. A cross over cable is simply a network cable that has the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end, so that two PCs can be linked directly together. The problem with using a cross over cable to build a network is that the network will be limited to using no more and no less than two PCs. Rather than using a cross over cable, most networks use normal Ethernet cables that do not have the sending and receiving wires reversed at one end. Of course the sending and receiving wires have to be reversed at some point in order for ommunications to succeed. This is the job of a hub or a switch. Hubs are starting to become extinct, but I want to talk about them anyway because it will make it easier to explain switches later on. There are different types of hubs, but generally speaking a hub is no thing more than a box with a bunch of RJ-45 ports. Each computer on a network would be connected to a hub via an Ethernet cable. You can see a picture of a hub, shown in Figure C. Fig 4. 23 A hub is a device that acts as a central connection point for computers on a network A hub has two different jobs.Its first job is to provide a central point of connection for all of the computers on the network. Every computer plugs into the hub (multiple hubs can be daisy chained together if necessary in order to accommodate more computers). The hub’s other job is to arrange the ports in such a way so that if a PC transmits data, the data is sent over the other computer’s receive wires. Right now you might be wondering how data gets to the correct destination if more than two PCs are connected to a hub. The secret lies in the network card. Each Ethernet card is programmed at the factory with a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address.When a computer on an Ethernet network transmi ts data across an Ethernet network containing PCs connected to a hub, the data is actually sent to every computer on the network. As each computer receives the data, it compares the destination address to its own MAC address. If the addresses match then the computer knows that it is the intended recipient, otherwise it ignores the data. As you can see, when computers are connected via a hub, every packet gets sent to every computer on the network. The problem is that any computer can send a transmission at any given time.Have you ever been on a conference call and accidentally started to talk at the same time as someone else? This is the same thing that happens on this type of network. When a PC needs to transmit data, it checks to make sure that no other computers are sending data at the moment. If the line is clear, it transmits the necessary data. If another computer tries to communicate at the same time though, then the packets of data that are traveling across the wire collide and are destroyed (this is why this type of network is sometimes referred to as a collision domain). Both PCs then have to wait for a random mount of time and attempt to retransmit the packet that was destroyed. As the number of PCs on a collision domain increases, so does the number of collisions. As the number of collisions increase, network efficiency is decreased. This is why switches have almost completely replaced hubs. A switch, such as the one shown in Figure D, performs all of the same basic tasks as a hub. The difference is that when a PC on the network needs to communicate with another PC, the switch uses a set of internal logic circuits to establish a dedicated, logical path between the two PCs.What this means is that the two PCs are free to communicate with each other, without having to worry about collisions. Fig4. 24 A switch looks a lot like a hub, but performs very differently Switches greatly improve a network’s efficiency. Yes, they eliminate collisions, bu t there is more to it than that. Because of the way that switches work, they can establish parallel communications paths. For example, just because computer A is communicating with computer B, there is no reason why computer C can’t simultaneously communicate with computer D.In a collision domain, these types of parallel communications would be impossible because they would result in collisions. 4. 10 PLANNING AND CABLING NETWORKS. When planning the installation of LAN cabling, there are four physical areas to consider: Work area Telecommunications room, also known as the distribution facility Backbone cabling, also known as vertical cabling Distribution cabling, also known as horizontal cabling Total Cable Length For UTP installations, the ANSI/TIA/EIA-568-B standard specifies that the total combined length of cable spanning the four areas listed above is limited to a maximum distance of 100 meters per